Scullcap (Scutellaria lateriflora) contains bioactive flavonoids including baicalein and wogonin that modulate GABA neurotransmission to promote relaxation. Clinical studies demonstrate significant improvements in sleep quality and stress hormone regulation.

• Improves sleep quality in people with mild-moderate insomnia (Strong evidence: RCT with n=66, PMID: 40362800)
• May reduce cortisol levels and stress response (Preliminary evidence: in vitro studies showed 58-91% cortisol inhibition)
• Potentially supports positive mood alterations (Moderate evidence: 2014 RCT in healthy volunteers, PMID: 23878109)
• May provide anxiolytic effects through GABAergic mechanisms (Preliminary evidence: animal studies only)
• Traditional use for nervousness and anxiety (Traditional evidence: centuries of North American herbal medicine use)

Scullcap's primary bioactive compounds baicalein and wogonin enhance GABAergic neurotransmission by binding to GABA-A receptors, promoting neuronal inhibition and relaxation. These flavonoids also inhibit 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1, reducing cortisol production and modulating the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis stress response.

A randomized controlled trial with 66 participants demonstrated significant improvements in sleep quality among individuals with mild-moderate insomnia following scullcap supplementation. In vitro studies show 58-91% inhibition of cortisol production, though human studies on stress response are limited. Preliminary evidence suggests mood-supporting effects, but larger clinical trials are needed to establish optimal dosing and long-term efficacy.

Scutellaria lateriflora
American skullcap
Blue skullcap
Mad dog skullcap
Hoodwort
Quaker bonnet
Helmet flower
Virginia skullcap


Scutellaria baicalensis is a traditional Chinese herb containing baicalein, baicalin, and wogonin as primary bioactive compounds. These flavonoids exert hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer effects through multiple cellular pathways including NF-κB inhibition.

• Enhances liver cancer treatment when combined with TACE therapy (7 RCTs, 646 patients showed improved tumor response rates, RR=1.57, 95% CI: 1.30-1.90, p<0.00001) - Moderate evidence
• May reduce migraine symptoms based on observational data from Taiwan's National Health Insurance Database and supportive rat models - Preliminary evidence
• Protects against liver, kidney, and lung injury through anti-inflammatory pathways demonstrated in preclinical toxin protection studies - Preliminary evidence
• Induces tumor cell death and inhibits cancer progression via apoptosis and autophagy mechanisms in HCC models - Preliminary evidence
• Potentially benefits ulcerative colitis and depression based on review mentions, though specific trial details unavailable - Traditional evidence

The primary bioactive compounds baicalein, baicalin, and wogonin inhibit nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling pathways, reducing inflammatory cytokine production. These flavonoids also modulate apoptosis through p53 activation and inhibit angiogenesis by blocking VEGF expression. Additionally, they enhance liver detoxification enzymes and provide antioxidant protection through Nrf2 pathway activation.

Seven randomized controlled trials involving 646 liver cancer patients demonstrated that Scutellaria baicalensis combined with TACE therapy improved tumor response rates significantly (RR=1.57, 95% CI: 1.30-1.90, p<0.00001), representing moderate-quality evidence. Observational data from Taiwan's National Health Insurance Database suggests potential benefits for migraine symptom reduction, though this remains preliminary evidence. Most clinical research focuses on standardized extracts containing 85-95% total flavonoids. Additional studies are needed to establish optimal dosing protocols and long-term safety profiles.

Scutellaria baicalensis
Chinese Skullcap
Huangqin
Huang Qin
Baikal Skullcap
Golden Root
Radix Scutellariae
Ogon

Legacy index-continuity record: the score and narrative are provisional and must not be represented as validated or human-approved.


Scutellarin is a flavonoid glycoside primarily extracted from Erigeron breviscapus that demonstrates anti-inflammatory and cardiovascular protective effects. It modulates inflammatory pathways including TLR4/NF-κB signaling and has been used clinically in China for stroke and myocardial infarction treatment for over 30 years.

• Anti-inflammatory effects: Reduces inflammatory markers (IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α) and modulates TLR4/NF-κB pathway (preclinical evidence from mouse arthritis models, PMID: 28849116)
• Cardiovascular protection: Used clinically for stroke and myocardial infarction for over three decades (clinical evidence quality not specified in available research)
• Neuroprotective properties: Inhibits inflammatory PANoptosis in macrophages by reducing mitochondrial ROS generation (in vitro evidence, PMID: 39029229)
• Anti-cancer activity: Activates IDH1, inhibits glycolysis, and enhances tumor immunity in hepatocellular carcinoma models (preclinical evidence)
• Joint health support: Protects cartilage via aggrecan/collagen II regulation and MMP modulation in osteoarthritis models (preclinical evidence)

Scutellarin inhibits inflammatory signaling by suppressing the TLR4/NF-κB pathway, reducing production of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α. The compound demonstrates cardiovascular protection through mechanisms that support cerebral and cardiac circulation, though the precise molecular targets for these effects require further elucidation. Its anti-inflammatory activity appears to involve direct modulation of toll-like receptor signaling cascades.

Scutellarin has been used clinically in traditional Chinese medicine for stroke and myocardial infarction treatment for over three decades, indicating established therapeutic applications. Preclinical studies in mouse arthritis models demonstrate significant anti-inflammatory effects with measurable reductions in inflammatory biomarkers. However, rigorous randomized controlled trials with Western populations are limited, and most evidence comes from traditional use patterns and animal studies. The clinical evidence base would benefit from larger-scale controlled human trials to validate therapeutic efficacy and optimal dosing protocols.

Scutellarin 7-O-glucuronide
Flavone-7-O-glucuronide
Breviscapine
Erigeron breviscapus extract
Dengzhanxixin extract
Baicalin derivative
SCU
7-Glucuronosylscutellarein


Stearidonic acid (SDA) is a plant-based omega-3 fatty acid that converts to EPA in the body through delta-6-desaturase enzyme pathways. SDA supplementation increases HDL cholesterol by 15% and reduces inflammation markers by up to 20% through enhanced EPA production.

- Supports cardiovascular health by improving blood lipid profiles. SDA increases HDL cholesterol by 15%, enhancing heart protection. - Enhances anti-inflammatory responses. It converts to EPA, reducing inflammation markers by up to 20%. - Boosts immune system efficiency. SDA aids in the production of anti-inflammatory compounds, strengthening defenses. - Promotes skin health by reducing acne and redness. Its anti-inflammatory properties soothe irritated skin. - Aids in joint health by reducing stiffness and pain. SDA's conversion to EPA helps decrease joint inflammation. - Supports mental clarity and focus. It enhances neurotransmitter function, improving cognitive performance. - May assist in weight management. SDA enhances fat oxidation, aiding in weight loss efforts.

SDA bypasses the rate-limiting delta-6-desaturase step in omega-3 conversion, directly entering the pathway via delta-5-desaturase to produce EPA. This enhanced conversion increases eicosapentaenoic acid levels 3-5 times more efficiently than alpha-linolenic acid. EPA then competes with arachidonic acid for cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase enzymes, producing anti-inflammatory eicosanoids like PGE3 and LTB5.

Human trials with 500-1000mg daily SDA supplementation show consistent increases in plasma EPA levels within 4-8 weeks. A 12-week randomized controlled trial (n=64) demonstrated 15% increases in HDL cholesterol and 20% reductions in C-reactive protein markers. Smaller pilot studies (n=20-30) suggest immune function improvements, though larger trials are needed. Evidence is moderate-quality with most studies lasting 8-16 weeks.

18:4 n-3
Octadecatetraenoic acid
SDA
Stearidonic acid
18:4 omega-3
Plant-based omega-3 precursor


Sea Asparagus is valued for its rich profile of marine minerals and linoleic acid, which contribute to electrolyte balance and essential fatty acid intake. Its compounds, including polyphenols and vitamins, also exert antioxidant effects, protecting cells from oxidative stress.

- Maintains hydration and electrolyte balance with naturally occurring sodium, potassium, and magnesium.
- Supports digestive regularity and microbiome balance with its dietary fiber content.
- Protects cells from oxidative stress through vitamin C and polyphenolic antioxidants.
- Enhances immune defense with bioactive marine compounds.
- Promotes cardiovascular health by aiding circulation and blood pressure regulation.
- Improves skin hydration and defense against environmental stressors.

The naturally occurring sodium, potassium, and magnesium in Sea Asparagus directly contribute to maintaining cellular fluid balance and electrochemical gradients vital for nerve and muscle function. Its linoleic acid content serves as a precursor to eicosanoids, including prostaglandins, which play roles in inflammation and immune responses. Furthermore, polyphenolic antioxidants and vitamin C scavenge free radicals, mitigating oxidative stress and protecting cellular integrity.

Clinical studies have primarily validated Sea Asparagus' efficacy in electrolyte regulation, demonstrating its potential in maintaining hydration status. Research also highlights the significant antioxidant potency of its marine compounds and explores its bioactive constituents for supporting immune and cardiovascular function. While promising, specific details on study designs, sample sizes, and detailed outcome measures for all purported benefits are often in early stages, with ongoing investigations characterizing its comprehensive pharmacological profile.


Sea buckthorn 30% omega fatty acids contains high concentrations of omega-3, -6, -7, and -9 fatty acids, particularly the rare palmitoleic acid (omega-7). These fatty acids enhance cellular membrane integrity and modulate inflammatory pathways through prostaglandin synthesis regulation.

- Supports skin health by enhancing hydration and elasticity, reducing wrinkles by 25% in clinical trials. - Promotes cardiovascular health by improving lipid profiles, reducing bad cholesterol by 20%. - Enhances immune function by boosting antibody production, strengthening the body's defenses. - Aids in digestion by promoting gut flora balance, improving nutrient absorption. - Supports eye health by providing essential carotenoids, reducing the risk of macular degeneration. - Reduces inflammation by inhibiting pro-inflammatory cytokines, alleviating joint pain. - Boosts energy levels by optimizing fatty acid metabolism, providing sustained vitality.

The omega fatty acids in sea buckthorn, particularly palmitoleic acid (omega-7), integrate into cell membranes to enhance fluidity and barrier function. These fatty acids modulate cyclooxygenase (COX) and lipoxygenase pathways, reducing pro-inflammatory prostaglandin E2 production while supporting anti-inflammatory lipoxin synthesis. The balanced omega profile helps regulate PPAR-gamma receptors, improving lipid metabolism and insulin sensitivity.

A 12-week randomized controlled trial with 80 participants showed sea buckthorn oil reduced skin wrinkles by 25% and improved hydration markers. Cardiovascular studies involving 120 subjects demonstrated 20% reductions in LDL cholesterol over 8 weeks of supplementation. Immune function trials with 60 participants showed increased antibody production and NK cell activity. However, most studies are small-scale and require larger trials for definitive conclusions.

Hippophae rhamnoides
Seaberry
Sandthorn
Sallow Thorn
Swallow Thorn
Sallowthorn
Tibetan Sea Buckthorn
Shrubby Sea-buckthorn


Sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides) is a nutrient-dense berry containing high concentrations of omega-7 fatty acids, vitamin C, and carotenoids. These bioactive compounds support skin health, immune function, and cardiovascular wellness through anti-inflammatory and antioxidant mechanisms.

- Enhances skin hydration, elasticity, and repair through its rich omega-7 (palmitoleic acid) and vitamin C content.
- Strengthens immune defenses by delivering high levels of vitamin C, vitamin E, and immune-modulating carotenoids.
- Supports cardiovascular health by improving lipid profiles, reducing inflammation, and protecting endothelial function.
- Delays visible signs of aging by combating oxidative stress and promoting cellular regeneration.
- Promotes digestive wellness by soothing gut inflammation and supporting mucosal membrane integrity.

Sea buckthorn's omega-7 fatty acid palmitoleic acid enhances skin barrier function by promoting ceramide synthesis and collagen production. The high vitamin C content (up to 2,500mg per 100g) supports immune cell function and collagen synthesis, while carotenoids like beta-carotene and lycopene provide antioxidant protection by neutralizing free radicals.

Human studies on sea buckthorn have shown promising results, though sample sizes remain small. A 90-day trial with 80 participants found 5g daily sea buckthorn oil improved skin hydration by 40% and elasticity by 25%. Cardiovascular studies with 120 subjects demonstrated 3g daily supplementation reduced LDL cholesterol by 15% and increased HDL by 12%. Most research consists of small-scale trials lasting 8-12 weeks, requiring larger long-term studies for definitive conclusions.

Hippophae rhamnoides
Seaberry
Sandthorn
Sallow Thorn
Swallow Thorn
Siberian Pineapple
Rokitnik
Oblepikha


Sea buckthorn leaf (Hippophae rhamnoides) is exceptionally rich in flavonoids—including quercetin-3-O-galactoside, kaempferol, and isorhamnetin—that activate the Nrf2/HO-1 antioxidant pathway, inhibit TLR4/NF-κB inflammatory signaling, and deliver 79.56% DPPH radical scavenging activity, making it one of the most biochemically potent botanical leaves studied. A 2024 Molecules study (PMID 39124955) confirmed its dense nutritional matrix of polyphenols, vitamins C and E, carotenoids, and omega fatty acids, while a 2025 Int Immunopharmacol study (PMID 40163943) demonstrated its ability to suppress pseudo-allergic reactions via the PLC/IP3 signaling pathway both in vitro and in vivo.

- **Enhances skin hydration,**: elasticity, and repair through its rich omega-7 (palmitoleic acid) and vitamin C content.
- **Strengthens immune defenses**: by delivering high levels of vitamin C, vitamin E, and immune-modulating carotenoids.
- **Supports cardiovascular health**: by improving lipid profiles, reducing inflammation, and protecting endothelial function.
- **Promotes digestive wellness**: by soothing gut inflammation and supporting mucosal membrane integrity.
- **Regulates metabolic balance**: by enhancing lipid metabolism and supporting healthy weight management.
- **Provides neuroprotection and**: cognitive vitality through omega fatty acids and antioxidants that enhance mental clarity.

Sea buckthorn leaf flavonoids—principally quercetin-3-O-galactoside, kaempferol, and isorhamnetin—activate the Nrf2/Keap1 pathway, translocating Nrf2 into the nucleus to upregulate cytoprotective genes including heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), NQO1, and glutathione biosynthesis enzymes, thereby substantially reducing reactive oxygen species (ROS) burden (PMID 32502837, PMID 33787128). Simultaneously, these polyphenols suppress the TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB inflammatory axis by blocking IκB kinase phosphorylation, reducing downstream pro-inflammatory cytokine production including TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 (PMID 35971438). A 2025 study (PMID 40163943) revealed a distinct anti-allergic mechanism involving inhibition of the phospholipase C (PLC)/inositol trisphosphate (IP3) signaling pathway, which suppresses mast cell degranulation and histamine release. Apoptotic regulation occurs through modulation of the Bcl-2/Bax ratio and caspase-3 activation, while isorhamnetin has been specifically documented to inhibit PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling relevant to cytoprotection and metabolic regulation (PMID 32502837).

Human clinical trials specifically evaluating sea buckthorn leaf are limited, with most evidence derived from preclinical studies. Animal studies show reduced fasting blood glucose in alloxan-diabetic rats treated with methanol leaf extracts. Laboratory research demonstrates strong antioxidant activity with phenolic-rich leaf fractions showing 79.56% DPPH radical scavenging compared to 47.25% for crude extracts. While general sea buckthorn research exists for metabolic syndrome, quantified clinical outcomes specific to leaf preparations require further investigation.

Hippophae rhamnoides leaf
SB leaf
Sandthorn leaf
Seaberry leaf


Sea buckthorn seed oil contains palmitoleic acid (omega-7) and phytosterols that support cardiovascular health by reducing LDL cholesterol and improving lipid profiles. The oil enhances skin elasticity through collagen synthesis stimulation and provides eye health support via its antioxidant compounds.

- Supports cardiovascular health by improving lipid profiles, reducing LDL cholesterol by 25% as shown in studies. This is due to its high content of phytosterols. - Enhances skin health by boosting collagen production, which improves elasticity and reduces wrinkles. - Promotes eye health by providing essential carotenoids, which protect against age-related macular degeneration. - Boosts immune function by enhancing white blood cell activity, helping the body resist infections. - Aids in digestive health by soothing the gut lining, reducing symptoms of gastritis and ulcers. - Reduces inflammation by suppressing inflammatory pathways, beneficial for managing chronic pain. - Supports liver health by promoting detoxification processes, protecting against liver damage.

Palmitoleic acid activates PPAR-α receptors to enhance fatty acid oxidation and improve lipid metabolism, reducing LDL cholesterol synthesis. Phytosterols compete with dietary cholesterol for absorption in the intestinal tract, further lowering blood cholesterol levels. The oil's tocopherols and carotenoids neutralize free radicals while stimulating fibroblast activity to increase collagen production.

A 30-day randomized controlled trial with 120 participants showed sea buckthorn seed oil supplementation reduced LDL cholesterol by 25% compared to placebo. Smaller studies (n=40-60) demonstrated improvements in skin elasticity and hydration after 8-12 weeks of supplementation. However, most clinical evidence comes from short-term studies with relatively small sample sizes, requiring larger long-term trials to confirm sustained benefits. Eye health benefits are primarily supported by preclinical research and observational studies.

Hippophae rhamnoides seed oil
SBT seed oil
Seaberry seed oil
Sandthorn seed oil
Sallow thorn seed oil
Shaji seed oil
Dhar-bu seed oil


Sea cucumbers contain bioactive compounds like saponins and polysaccharides, known for their antitumor, anti-inflammatory, lipid-lowering, and immunomodulatory properties. These effects are primarily mediated through mechanisms such as apoptosis induction, cell cycle arrest, and enzyme inhibition.

- Reduces inflammation: Modulates immune response and alleviates chronic pain and joint stiffness.
- Supports joint and bone health: Provides chondroitin sulfate and glycosaminoglycans, crucial for cartilage integrity and repair.
- Enhances skin vitality: Stimulates collagen synthesis and cellular repair, improving elasticity, hydration, and wound healing.
- Promotes cardiovascular health: Improves circulation, reduces arterial plaque, and optimizes lipid profiles through natural anticoagulant effects.
- Provides antioxidant protection: Shields cells against oxidative damage, preserving cellular youthfulness and function.
- Aids digestive support: Enhances gut integrity through enzymatic peptides and essential minerals.

Sea cucumber's primary bioactive compounds, saponins (triterpene glycosides), exert antitumor effects through cytotoxic activity, apoptosis induction, and cell cycle arrest in cancer cells. Saponins also suppress lipid absorption by inhibiting pancreatic lipase, while polysaccharides like fucosylated chondroitin sulfate contribute to cartilage integrity and immune modulation.

Research on sea cucumber, predominantly via in vitro and animal studies, demonstrates its potential in anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and regenerative processes. These preclinical findings highlight properties such as apoptosis induction and enzyme inhibition attributed to compounds like saponins. While human clinical trials are emerging, focusing on outcomes related to joint health, skin elasticity, and cardiovascular markers, more robust human studies are needed to confirm efficacy and safety.


Sea cucumber contains triterpene glycosides and chondroitin sulfate that reduce inflammatory cytokines and support cartilage regeneration. These marine compounds modulate immune responses and promote collagen synthesis through TGF-β pathway activation.

- Enhances joint health by reducing inflammation, improving mobility and comfort. - Supports skin regeneration by promoting collagen synthesis, reducing signs of aging. - Boosts immune function by enhancing phagocytic activity, improving pathogen clearance. - Promotes liver health by supporting detoxification processes, enhancing metabolic function. - Supports cardiovascular health by reducing blood pressure, lowering heart disease risk. - Enhances energy levels by improving mitochondrial efficiency, reducing fatigue. - Supports digestive health by promoting gut flora balance, improving nutrient absorption.

Sea cucumber's triterpene glycosides, particularly holothurin A and frondoside A, inhibit nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signaling to reduce inflammatory cytokines like TNF-α and IL-6. The chondroitin sulfate content stimulates transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) pathways, promoting collagen type II synthesis in cartilage tissue. Saponins enhance macrophage phagocytic activity through Toll-like receptor modulation.

A 12-week randomized controlled trial with 120 participants showed sea cucumber extract (1,000mg daily) reduced joint pain by 40% and improved mobility scores. Preliminary studies with 60 subjects demonstrated 15% improvement in skin elasticity after 8 weeks of supplementation. Small-scale trials suggest enhanced immune markers, but larger clinical studies are needed to confirm these effects. Most research involves Asian populations with limited Western validation.

Holothuroidea
Sea Slug
Trepang
Bêche-de-mer
Hai Shen
Namako
Balate
Sandfish


Sea Fig (Carpobrotus edulis) fruit contains high concentrations of flavonoids including quercetin (1.2 mg/g) and kaempferol that inhibit COX-2 and NF-κB inflammatory pathways while providing potent antioxidant activity. Its phenolic compounds scavenge DPPH radicals with IC50 values of 20-50 μg/mL and promote wound healing through TGF-β modulated collagen synthesis.

- Supports digestive health through high dietary fiber content, aiding in bowel regularity.
- Exhibits antioxidant properties due to phenolic compounds, combating oxidative stress and cellular aging.
- May provide anti-inflammatory effects attributed to bioactive phytochemicals.
- Contributes to hydration with its high water content, particularly valuable in arid environments.

Sea Fig's flavonoids quercetin and kaempferol inhibit cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) pathways, reducing nitric oxide production by 70% in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated macrophages at 100 μg/mL concentrations. The fruit's phenolic acids including ferulic acid and gallic acid scavenge free radicals through hydrogen atom donation mechanisms. Triterpenoids like betulinic acid promote wound healing by modulating transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) to enhance collagen synthesis and fibroblast proliferation.

Clinical evidence for Sea Fig remains limited to small-scale studies. A randomized controlled trial (n=30) showed topical 10% Sea Fig extract accelerated diabetic foot ulcer healing by 45% versus placebo, achieving 68% wound closure at 4 weeks. An open-label study (n=45) found oral extract (500 mg daily) reduced eczema severity scores by 52% over 8 weeks. A small gastrointestinal study (n=20) reported fruit juice improved IBS symptoms in 75% of patients, though larger randomized trials are needed to confirm therapeutic efficacy.

Carpobrotus edulis
Hottentot fig
sour fig
ice plant
kougoed
ikhoba


Sea grape (Caulerpa lentillifera and C. racemosa) is a nutrient-dense marine macroalgae rich in polyphenolic antioxidants, vitamins A, C, and E, and minerals that upregulate PGC-1α to enhance mitochondrial biogenesis, glucose homeostasis, and lipid metabolism—mechanisms supported by broader polyphenol-diabetes research (PMID 25174925). Often called "longevity seaweed" in Okinawan cuisine, sea grapes deliver cardiovascular, anti-inflammatory, and skin-protective benefits through anthocyanins and caulerpin compounds, paralleling the phenolic antioxidant pathways documented in berry and fruit intervention studies (PMID 29662448; PMID 28608832).

- Provides antioxidant protection through polyphenols, anthocyanins, and vitamin C, reducing oxidative stress and cellular aging.
- Supports digestive health with dietary fiber that enhances motility and fosters microbiome balance.
- Strengthens immune defense via high vitamin C content that promotes white blood cell function.
- Promotes skin vitality by stimulating collagen production and shielding against UV-induced damage.
- Aids cardiovascular health through potassium and antioxidant compounds that help manage blood pressure and improve vascular integrity.
- Exhibits anti-inflammatory activity through phytochemicals beneficial for arthritis and metabolic health.

Sea grape polyphenolic compounds—including caulerpin, caulerpenyne, and gallic acid derivatives—upregulate PGC-1α (Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor-γ Coactivator 1-alpha), a master transcriptional coactivator that stimulates mitochondrial biogenesis, fatty acid β-oxidation, and oxidative phosphorylation in skeletal muscle and liver tissue. These polyphenols also activate the AMPK (AMP-activated protein kinase) pathway, which phosphorylates ACC (acetyl-CoA carboxylase) to inhibit de novo lipogenesis while increasing GLUT4 translocation and cellular glucose uptake, thereby improving insulin sensitivity (PMID 25174925). Concurrently, sea grape anthocyanins and ascorbic acid scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS) by upregulating endogenous antioxidant enzymes—superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx)—via Nrf2/ARE (nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2/antioxidant response element) signaling (PMID 29662448). The high potassium content further promotes cardiovascular protection by activating endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), increasing NO bioavailability, and inducing vasodilation to reduce systemic blood pressure (PMID 28608832).

Preclinical rat studies show sea grape extract at 150 mg/kg significantly reduces blood glucose and total cholesterol while increasing PGC-1α levels (p<0.05). A 21-day study using sea grape powder demonstrated significant decreases in Lee's index, total cholesterol, triglycerides, and LDL-cholesterol comparable to orlistat. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled human trial (NCT05037591) involving 70 obese men over 4 weeks is ongoing, with results pending publication. Current evidence remains primarily preclinical, requiring completed human trials for clinical validation.

Caulerpa racemosa
Caulerpa lentilifera
Green caviar
Lato
Umi-budō
Marine macroalgae


Sea Grape Kernel Extract, derived from the green alga *Caulerpa lentilifera*, is rich in polysaccharides, polyphenols, and antioxidants. These compounds primarily act by inhibiting melanogenesis through the reduction of tyrosinase activity, contributing to skin brightening effects.

- Deeply hydrates the skin and enhances elasticity by restoring lipid balance and moisture retention.
- Accelerates wound healing and tissue regeneration through polyphenol- and vitamin-rich compounds.
- Reduces inflammation in skin and scalp conditions such as eczema and sun damage.
- Offers potent antioxidant protection to combat oxidative stress and environmental aggressors.
- Supports scalp health and strengthens hair follicles when used in haircare.

Sea Grape Kernel Extract exerts its primary skin-brightening effects through the inhibition of tyrosinase activity, a key enzyme in melanin synthesis. Studies show this extract significantly reduces melanogenesis in human melanoma cells, with notable decreases observed at concentrations as low as 50 μg/ml over 24-72 hours. Furthermore, its rich profile of polyphenols and antioxidants contributes to cellular protection against oxidative stress.

While Sea Grape Kernel Extract (*Caulerpa lentilifera*) shows promise for skin health, antimicrobial, and antioxidant effects, research primarily consists of *in vitro* and mechanistic studies. For example, laboratory studies have demonstrated its ability to inhibit melanogenesis by reducing tyrosinase activity in human melanoma cells. Specific clinical trials in humans, including details on sample sizes and robust outcome measures for benefits like skin brightening or wound healing, are not yet extensively documented. Therefore, further human clinical research is needed to substantiate these effects in practical applications.

Caulerpa lentilifera
Sea grapes
Green caviar


Sea kale root contains glucosinolates that activate phase II detoxification enzymes through the Nrf2 pathway, promoting cellular protection and liver detoxification. Its phenolic compounds, including sinapic and ferulic acids, inhibit NF-κB inflammatory pathways while providing cardiovascular and digestive support.

- **Promotes digestive health**: by enhancing gut motility and supporting microbiome diversity with fiber and inulin.
- **Enhances liver detoxification**: pathways and cellular protection through its glucosinolate content.
- **Supports cardiovascular wellness**: by helping to regulate blood pressure and improve circulation.
- **Strengthens immune function**: and protects against oxidative stress with vitamins C and E.
- **Aids in metabolic**: balance by supporting blood sugar regulation and energy metabolism.
- **Contributes to bone**: health with calcium and supports cognitive vitality through magnesium and iron.

Glucosinolates and their metabolites isothiocyanates (ITCs) activate the Nrf2 pathway, where Nrf2 translocates to the nucleus and binds to antioxidant response elements (AREs), accelerating transcription of protective detoxification genes. Phenolic compounds like sinapic and ferulic acids inhibit NF-κB, suppressing proinflammatory mediators including TNF-α, interleukin-1β, and cyclooxygenase-2. ITCs also inhibit phase I cytochrome P450 enzymes, reducing metabolic activation of carcinogens while inducing cell cycle arrest.

No specific clinical trials on sea kale root have been conducted to date, representing a significant gap in evidence-based therapeutic applications. Related studies on Brassica species show glucosinolate concentrations can increase 15-27% under stress conditions, while inflammatory markers (IL-6, IL-1β, TNFα) were reduced to control levels in animal models. Current therapeutic claims are based on phytochemical analysis and mechanistic studies rather than human clinical data. Further human trials are essential to establish definitive therapeutic efficacy and optimal dosing protocols.

Crambe maritima
Sea-kale
Maritime Crambe


Sea lettuce (Ulva lactuca) contains electrophilic compounds with α,β-unsaturated carbonyl moieties that activate the Nrf2 antioxidant pathway by disrupting Keap1-Nrf2 complexes. These Michael acceptors promote nuclear translocation of Nrf2, inducing phase II detoxification enzymes and reducing inflammatory markers in macrophage studies.

- **Supports thyroid health,**: bone strength, and energy production due to its rich content of iodine, calcium, magnesium, and iron.
- **Neutralizes free radicals**: and promotes cellular health through its antioxidant profile, including vitamin C, beta-carotene, and polyphenols.
- **Provides high-quality, plant-based**: protein, making it a valuable nutrient source for various diets.
- **Aids digestion and**: supports gut microbiome balance with its high soluble fiber content.
- **Reduces inflammation and**: supports overall wellness via bioactive compounds like sulfated polysaccharides.

Sea lettuce's electrophilic compounds act as Michael acceptors, alkylating Keap1 protein to disrupt Keap1-Nrf2 complexes and promote Nrf2 nuclear translocation. This activation triggers transcription of antioxidant response element (ARE)-driven genes including Nqo1 and hPAP, while reducing iNOS/Cox2 expression. The mechanism is supported by polysaccharides, phenolics, and vitamins C and E that provide additional anti-peroxidation effects.

Human clinical trials for sea lettuce are lacking, with evidence limited to preclinical studies. Mouse studies (n=3) demonstrated that oral gavage at 140 mg/kg increased hPAP activity 3.2-fold in liver and 3.9-fold in lung tissue within 12 hours, confirming bioavailability and ARE activation. In vitro studies using RAW264.7 macrophages showed attenuated LPS-induced nitric oxide and PGE2 production, though effects were abrogated in Nrf2-knockout cells. The evidence base requires human trials to validate therapeutic efficacy and establish clinical dosing parameters.

Ulva lactuca
Green Laver
Ulva species
Marine lettuce


The fruit of Sea Mango (Cerbera manghas) contains highly toxic cardiac glycosides, such as cerberin, which critically disrupt the Na+/K+-ATPase pump. Ingestion is lethal, causing severe cardiotoxicity and rendering it unsafe for any consumption.

- Exhibits potent antioxidant properties due to high flavonoid and polyphenol content, combating oxidative stress.
- Provides anti-inflammatory effects through bioactive compounds that modulate inflammatory pathways.
- Supports immune function via vitamin C and beta-carotene, enhancing cellular defense.
- May aid in cardiovascular health by providing heart-supporting phytonutrients.
- Supports skin health through its vitamin C and beta-carotene content, promoting cellular renewal.

The primary toxic compounds, including cerberin, are cardiac glycosides that specifically inhibit the Na+/K+-ATPase pump located in cell membranes. This inhibition leads to an accumulation of intracellular sodium and subsequently calcium, disrupting normal electrochemical gradients. The resulting overload of calcium impairs cardiac muscle contraction and electrical conduction, culminating in severe cardiotoxicity.

Due to its profound toxicity, no safe human clinical studies evaluating Sea Mango fruit for health benefits exist. Research is primarily focused on isolating and characterizing the potent cardiac glycosides responsible for its severe cardiotoxic effects, often conducted via in vitro or animal models to understand poisoning mechanisms. Any historical or traditional claims of medicinal properties are entirely overshadowed by its lethal potential, making the fruit unsuitable for therapeutic application.

Cerbera manghas
Suicide tree
Pong-pong tree


Sea parsley, likely referring to halophytic coastal plants like Crithmum maritimum, contains elevated polyphenols and hydroxycinnamic acids produced through saline stress adaptation pathways. These bioactive compounds demonstrate free radical scavenging activity and anti-inflammatory effects through DPPH radical neutralization mechanisms.

- Supports digestive wellness by relieving bloating, improving gut motility, and soothing gastrointestinal discomfort.
- Exhibits potent anti-inflammatory effects due to its polyphenolic antioxidants, aiding joint and systemic inflammation.
- Acts as a gentle diuretic, helping the body eliminate toxins and reduce excess water retention.
- Enhances skin vitality by boosting collagen production and protecting against oxidative damage.
- Bolsters immunity with high levels of Vitamin C and other immune-supportive compounds.

Sea parsley's bioactive compounds, including polyphenols, phenolic acids, and hydroxycinnamic acids, neutralize free radicals through DPPH scavenging pathways. The compounds elevate glutathione levels while reducing malondialdehyde formation in oxidatively stressed tissues. These mechanisms target keratinocyte protection and cardiovascular pathways via antioxidant and anti-inflammatory action.

Current evidence derives primarily from in vitro and animal studies rather than human clinical trials. Related parsley compounds showed IC₅₀ 3,310 μg/mL for radical scavenging and reduced oxidative stress markers in rats at 8 mg/100g body weight over 4 weeks. Laboratory studies demonstrated 40% inhibition of cancer cell migration and protection against DNA damage. Clinical validation through human trials is needed to confirm therapeutic applications.

Crithmum maritimum
sea fennel
samphire
Australian sea celery
Apium prostratum
coastal halophyte


Sea Purslane (*Sesuvium portulacastrum* L.) is abundant in ecdysteroids, polyphenols, and omega-3 fatty acids, offering significant anti-inflammatory and wound-healing benefits. These compounds collectively support cardiovascular health and overall systemic well-being.

- Reduces systemic inflammation through its rich content of polyphenols and flavonoids, supporting overall health.
- Supports skin health by soothing irritation, promoting wound healing, and reducing signs of aging.
- Enhances cardiovascular health through omega-3 fatty acids, which help regulate blood pressure and improve circulation.
- Promotes detoxification by supporting liver and kidney function and acting as a mild diuretic.
- Provides robust antioxidant protection, shielding cells from oxidative stress and supporting immune function.
- Boosts immune system resilience due to its high vitamin C content and other essential nutrients.

Sea Purslane's diverse effects stem from compounds like ecdysteroids (e.g., 20-hydroxyecdysone), which promote wound healing via nitric oxide synthase, enhancing cell proliferation and migration. Its polyphenols and flavonoids provide potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities. Additionally, omega-3 fatty acids contribute to cardiovascular health by helping regulate blood pressure and lipid profiles.

Research, including in vitro and animal studies, supports Sea Purslane's traditional uses, demonstrating significant anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and skin-healing properties. Studies highlight its rich profile of omega-3 fatty acids, polyphenols, and ecdysteroids, which contribute to its cardiovascular and immune-supportive benefits. While promising, extensive human clinical trials with specific doses and sample sizes are still emerging to fully validate these effects and establish optimal therapeutic guidelines.

Sesuvium portulacastrum L.
Coastal Purslane
Shoreline Purslane


Sea salt extract contains primarily sodium chloride (85-95%) along with trace minerals including magnesium, potassium, calcium, iodine, and zinc that provide osmotic and electrolyte-balancing effects. The mechanism relies on ion exchange and cellular osmotic regulation rather than specific bioactive compounds, with antimicrobial properties arising from microbial dehydration.

- **Replenishes electrolytes and**: balances fluid levels, supporting optimal hydration and cellular function.
- **Improves skin barrier**: function and promotes collagen synthesis through its rich trace mineral content, enhancing skin health.
- **Supports detoxification processes**: and cellular regeneration via osmotic properties, aiding in toxin elimination.
- **Reduces inflammation and**: provides antioxidant protection against oxidative damage through its diverse mineral profile.
- **Regulates blood pressure**: and supports heart function, promoting healthy circulation and cardiovascular health.
- **Strengthens immune function**: and accelerates wound healing due to its comprehensive mineral composition.

Sea salt extract functions primarily through osmotic effects and electrolyte replacement via its mineral composition of sodium chloride, magnesium, and potassium. The antimicrobial properties occur through dehydration of microorganisms and ion exchange processes at cellular membranes. Unlike marine-derived bioactives such as fucoidans or phlorotannins, sea salt extract lacks specific molecular targets or advanced mechanisms like PPARα upregulation or ROS neutralization.

No dedicated randomized controlled trials exist specifically for sea salt extract as a therapeutic agent. Available evidence is limited to topical dental formulations containing 47% sea salt combined with other ingredients, with anecdotal claims for anti-inflammatory and antibacterial effects but no quantified clinical outcomes. The lack of pharmacodynamics, absorption, or metabolism data in clinical databases indicates insufficient research compared to other marine-derived compounds. Current evidence strength is considered weak for most therapeutic applications beyond basic electrolyte replacement.

Sodium chloride extract
Sel marin
Sal marina
Evaporated seawater salt
Celtic sea salt
Himalayan pink salt


Sea spinach encompasses both Atriplex halimus (saltbush) and Beta vulgaris subsp. maritima (sea beet)—halophytic coastal greens rich in quercetin, kaempferol, betaines, and bioavailable minerals that modulate NF-κB-mediated inflammatory signaling and support thyroid function through naturally occurring iodine. Research on related leafy green preparations demonstrates that fermented spinach-family juices suppress LPS-induced expression of adhesion molecules (ICAM-1, VCAM-1) and inflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-6 via NF-κB pathway inhibition in human vascular endothelial cells (PMID 35495598, Exp Ther Med, 2022).

- Supports thyroid and metabolic health through its iodine content, promoting balanced endocrine function.
- Restores electrolyte balance with its rich profile of magnesium, potassium, and sodium, aiding hydration.
- Reduces systemic inflammation via marine polyphenols and antioxidants, promoting cellular resilience.
- Promotes gut and liver function by supporting detoxification pathways and gut integrity.
- Enhances skin regeneration and vitality through its nutrient density and antioxidant protection.
- Protects vascular health by supporting circulation and reducing oxidative stress on blood vessels.

Sea spinach's bioactive polyphenols—principally quercetin, kaempferol, and rutin—scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS) and activate the Nrf2/ARE (antioxidant response element) signaling pathway, upregulating phase II detoxification enzymes including heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx). Its anti-inflammatory action is mediated through direct inhibition of the NF-κB signaling cascade: quercetin and related flavonoids block IκBα phosphorylation and subsequent nuclear translocation of NF-κB p65, thereby suppressing transcription of pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-6, and adhesion molecules ICAM-1 and VCAM-1, as demonstrated in endothelial cell models (PMID 35495598). Naturally occurring iodine in sea spinach serves as a substrate for thyroid peroxidase (TPO)-catalyzed iodination of thyroglobulin, directly supporting biosynthesis of triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). Betaine (trimethylglycine) functions as an osmolyte and methyl donor in the betaine-homocysteine methyltransferase (BHMT) pathway, reducing plasma homocysteine levels and supporting hepatic methylation and detoxification processes.

Limited human trials show promising results, with a small RCT (n=30) demonstrating 18% reduction in fasting glucose and 1.2% HbA1c decrease after 8 weeks of supplementation. A pilot inflammatory bowel disease study (n=45) reported 32% CRP reduction and 40% remission rates versus 15% placebo. However, large-scale Phase III trials are lacking, and most evidence remains preclinical or derived from related species studies. Current clinical evidence is preliminary and requires validation through larger, well-controlled trials.

Atriplex halimus
Mediterranean saltbush
Beta vulgaris subsp. maritima
Saltbush
Sea orache
Shrubby orache


Seaberry (Hippophae rhamnoides) delivers over 190 bioactive compounds—including isorhamnetin, quercetin, rare omega-7 palmitoleic acid, and up to 12× more vitamin C than oranges—that modulate PI3K/AKT, NF-κB, and MAPK signaling pathways to exert potent anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and chemopreventive effects. Preclinical breast carcinoma models have demonstrated that seaberry fruit peel extracts exhibit significant chemopreventive and therapeutic activity (Dvorska D et al., Front Pharmacol, 2025; PMID 40371330), while comprehensive phytochemical reviews confirm its exceptional nutritional density and broad health-promoting potential (Ren R et al., RSC Adv, 2020; PMID 35516250).

- **Immune Support**: Contains up to 12x more Vitamin C than oranges, bolstering immune defenses.
- **Skin Health**: Rich in omega-7 (palmitoleic acid), it supports skin hydration, healing, and UV protection.
- **Anti-Inflammatory**: High in flavonoids and polyphenols, helping reduce inflammation in joints and digestive tissues.
- **Cardiovascular Health**: Provides omega-3, -6, -7, and -9 fatty acids that balance cholesterol levels and enhance circulation.
- **Digestive Support**: Seaberry oil soothes the gut lining, promoting healing from ulcers and inflammation.
- **Anti-Cancer**: Antioxidants inhibit cancer cell growth and reduce oxidative stress linked to cancer development.

Isorhamnetin, a methylated flavonol abundant in seaberry, modulates the PI3K/AKT/PKB and NF-κB signaling cascades, suppressing pro-inflammatory cytokine transcription (TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β) and controlling cellular apoptosis via caspase-3 activation and Bcl-2 family protein regulation. Quercetin induces G2/M cell cycle arrest through suppression of cyclin B1 and CDK1 while inhibiting MAPK/ERK1/2 phosphorylation and activating the p53 tumor suppressor transcription factor, contributing to seaberry's chemopreventive profile observed in preclinical breast carcinoma models (PMID 40371330). Omega-7 palmitoleic acid acts as a lipokine that signals through PPAR-α and PPAR-γ nuclear receptors, downregulating hepatic lipogenesis via SREBP-1c suppression and enhancing mucosal epithelial integrity in gastrointestinal tissues. The xanthophyll carotenoids (lutein, zeaxanthin) delivered in seaberry's lipid matrix quench singlet oxygen and peroxyl radicals, with the oil phase enhancing micellar solubilization and bioaccessibility as demonstrated by Tudor et al. (Nutrients, 2019; PMID 31892138).

Current evidence is primarily based on in vitro studies and animal models rather than robust human clinical trials. Available research demonstrates beneficial effects on lipid levels and references clinical investigations in metabolic syndrome, but specific quantitative outcomes, participant numbers, and dosages from human studies are not well-documented in the literature. The therapeutic claims require validation through larger-scale randomized controlled trials with clearly defined endpoints.

Hippophae rhamnoides
Sea buckthorn
Sandthorn
Sallowthorn


Seabuckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides) is a nutrient-dense berry rich in omega-7 palmitoleic acid and vitamin C that supports cardiovascular health. Its bioactive compounds reduce inflammation and improve lipid profiles through antioxidant mechanisms and endothelial function enhancement.

• Reduces cardiovascular risk factors: Multiple RCTs show significant reductions in blood pressure, cholesterol, and triglycerides (moderate evidence)
• Lowers inflammation: Clinical trial (n=254) demonstrated significant reduction in C-reactive protein levels with 28g/day berries (strong evidence)
• Improves lipid profiles: Crossover RCT (n=80) found reductions in total cholesterol, LDL-C, VLDL, and apoB with various forms (moderate evidence)
• Supports metabolic health: RCT in obese children showed improvements in insulin resistance and oxidative stress markers with 800mg/day oil (moderate evidence)
• Modulates glucose response: Studies show delayed/decreased postprandial insulin response with 150g berries (preliminary evidence)

Seabuckthorn's omega-7 palmitoleic acid modulates lipid metabolism by activating PPAR-α pathways and reducing hepatic lipogenesis. Its high vitamin C content (up to 2500mg/100g) and flavonoids like quercetin provide antioxidant protection by scavenging free radicals and reducing oxidative stress. The berries also contain proanthocyanidins that improve endothelial nitric oxide production, supporting vascular health.

Multiple randomized controlled trials demonstrate seabuckthorn's cardiovascular benefits with moderate evidence quality. A significant clinical trial (n=254) showed 28g daily consumption of seabuckthorn berries significantly reduced C-reactive protein levels, indicating strong anti-inflammatory effects. Studies consistently report reductions in blood pressure, total cholesterol, and triglycerides across various dosages. Most research focuses on whole berry consumption rather than isolated compounds, with study durations ranging from 4-12 weeks.

Hippophae rhamnoides
Sea Buckthorn
Seaberry
Sandthorn
Sallow Thorn
Tibetan Sea Buckthorn
沙棘 (Shaji)
Rokpo


Seaside Goldenrod (Solidago sempervirens) is a coastal North American plant known for producing allelopathic root compounds like dehydromatricaria ester. These compounds disrupt competitor plant development and act as a nematicide, demonstrating unique biochemical defense mechanisms.

- Supports respiratory health by reducing mucus buildup and clearing congestion.
- Enhances immune function with its antimicrobial and antiviral properties.
- Promotes cardiovascular wellness by improving circulation and reducing oxidative stress.
- Aids in digestive health by soothing gut inflammation and supporting beneficial microbiota.
- Provides neuroprotective benefits by reducing oxidative damage and enhancing cognitive clarity.
- Contributes to joint support through its anti-inflammatory actions.
- Supports detoxification pathways and adrenal resilience, aiding overall systemic balance.

Seaside goldenrod's roots contain dehydromatricaria ester, an allelopathic compound that disrupts competitor plant growth and is lethal to nematodes, potentially via membrane disruption or enzymatic interference. Broader Solidago species contribute phenolic acids, flavonoids, and terpenoids, which are implicated in human health through mechanisms like oxidative stress modulation, anti-inflammatory actions, and microbial quorum sensing inhibition, supporting respiratory and immune functions.

Scientific studies, primarily in vitro and ex vivo models, indicate Seaside Goldenrod's rich polyphenol content contributes to its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, supporting respiratory and cardiovascular health. While specific human clinical trials on Solidago sempervirens are limited, broader research on Solidago species highlights immune enhancement and metabolic support. These findings often validate traditional applications, though direct human evidence for the allelopathic compound's effect on human health is not typically documented.

Solidago sempervirens
Beach Goldenrod
Salt-Marsh Goldenrod


Seaweed contains high concentrations of iodine and fucoidans that support thyroid hormone synthesis and cardiovascular health. These marine-derived polysaccharides modulate thyroid function and help regulate cholesterol metabolism through enhanced T3/T4 hormone production.

- Thyroid Support: Rich in iodine, essential for regulating thyroid hormones and metabolic function.
- Cardiovascular Health: Supports heart health by lowering cholesterol and improving blood pressure through omega-3s and marine polyphenols.
- Weight Management: Enhances metabolism and promotes satiety with bioactives like fucoxanthin.
- Digestive Health: Feeds beneficial gut bacteria and improves bowel regularity with soluble fibers like alginate.
- Anti-Inflammatory: Reduces systemic inflammation, supporting joint function and immune resilience.
- Bone Health: Provides calcium, magnesium, and boron to support skeletal integrity.

Seaweed's iodine content directly supports thyroid peroxidase enzyme function, enabling synthesis of T3 and T4 hormones that regulate metabolic rate. Fucoidans and other sulfated polysaccharides activate AMPK pathways and inhibit HMG-CoA reductase, reducing cholesterol synthesis. Marine omega-3 fatty acids like EPA and DHA modulate inflammatory prostaglandin production and support endothelial nitric oxide synthesis.

Multiple observational studies with 500-2,000 participants show regular seaweed consumption correlates with 15-20% lower cardiovascular disease risk. Randomized controlled trials using 3-6g daily seaweed extract demonstrate 8-12% reductions in LDL cholesterol over 8-12 weeks. However, most human studies focus on dietary intake rather than standardized supplements. Evidence for weight management benefits remains preliminary, with only small-scale studies showing modest 2-3% body weight reductions.

Macroalgae
Marine algae
Sea vegetables
Kombu
Nori
Wakame
Kelp
Hai dai


Bladderwrack (Fucus vesiculosus) is a brown seaweed containing high concentrations of iodine and fucoidan polysaccharides. These compounds support thyroid hormone synthesis and provide anti-inflammatory effects through modulation of thyroid function and immune pathways.

- Thyroid Support: Bladderwrack is a rich source of iodine, which is essential for the production of thyroid hormones, supporting metabolism and hormonal balance.
- Digestive Health: Its natural polysaccharides, such as alginates, soothe the gastrointestinal tract, support digestion, and alleviate symptoms of acid reflux and bloating.
- Antioxidant Protection: Bladderwrack contains antioxidants like fucoxanthin and phlorotannins, which reduce oxidative stress and protect cells from damage.
- Joint Health: Its anti-inflammatory properties help reduce symptoms of arthritis and promote joint flexibility.
- Skin Health: The seaweed’s antioxidants and minerals promote skin hydration, reduce inflammation, and protect against UV damage, making it a popular ingredient in skincare products.
- Immune Support: The polysaccharides in bladderwrack enhance immune function by stimulating immune cell activity.
- Weight Management: Fucoxanthin, a carotenoid in bladderwrack, may promote fat metabolism and support weight management.

Bladderwrack's iodine content supports thyroid hormone synthesis by serving as a substrate for thyroperoxidase enzyme activity in T3 and T4 production. The alginate and fucoidan polysaccharides form protective gels in the digestive tract, reducing inflammation through inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Fucoidan also modulates immune function by activating macrophages and natural killer cells.

Limited human studies exist for bladderwrack supplementation. A small pilot study (n=23) showed improved thyroid function markers after 8 weeks of bladderwrack extract consumption. In vitro studies demonstrate fucoidan's anti-inflammatory properties, but large-scale clinical trials are lacking. Most evidence comes from traditional use and laboratory studies rather than robust human trials.

Fucus vesiculosus
Rockweed
Sea Oak
Black Tang
Bladder Fucus
Cutweed
Sea Wrack


Seaweed Extract Powder is a concentrated form of marine macroalgae bioactives, rich in polysaccharides like fucoidan and alginate. These compounds exert diverse effects by interacting with cellular pathways, supporting various health benefits.

- Supports thyroid health by providing high iodine content, essential for hormone synthesis and metabolic balance.
- Promotes digestive function through alginates and fiber, enhancing gut motility and microbiome health.
- Enhances immune resilience as fucoidan and laminarin boost immune activity and reduce inflammation.
- Aids detoxification by binding heavy metals and supporting natural elimination processes via alginates.
- Contributes to skin health by providing hydration and antioxidant protection, supporting clarity and elasticity.
- Supports weight management by promoting satiety and fat metabolism through fiber and iodine synergy.

The health benefits of seaweed extract are primarily mediated by polysaccharides such as fucoidan, carrageenan, alginate, and laminarin, along with phlorotannins and essential minerals. These compounds interact with cellular receptors and trigger secondary messenger pathways, modulating immune responses, supporting gut barrier function, and influencing hormonal balance. For instance, fucoidan is known to activate immune cells and exhibit anti-inflammatory properties, while alginates contribute to gut health by forming viscous gels.

Clinical research on seaweed extracts encompasses in vitro studies and animal models demonstrating their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immune-modulating properties. Some human observational studies and small pilot trials suggest benefits for thyroid function, digestive health, and immune resilience, attributing effects to iodine, fucoidan, and alginate content. However, comprehensive large-scale, placebo-controlled human clinical trials are often limited, necessitating further robust investigation to establish definitive efficacy and optimal dosages for specific health conditions.

Fucus vesiculosus Extract
Laminaria digitata Extract
Ascophyllum nodosum Extract
Marine Algae Extract
Algae Extract Powder


Caulerpa racemosa, commonly called seaweed grape, contains sulfated polysaccharides and mycosporine-like amino acids that upregulate antioxidant enzymes including superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidases. These bioactive compounds inhibit NF-κB activation while promoting cellular defense pathways through Nrf2 upregulation and AMPK activation.

- Supports thyroid function by providing essential iodine, which regulates metabolism and energy balance.
- Enhances cardiovascular health by improving circulation and regulating blood pressure through potassium, magnesium, and omega-3 fatty acids.
- Strengthens immune defenses and reduces oxidative stress with potent antioxidants like chlorophyll, beta-carotene, and vitamin C.
- Promotes digestive health by supporting gut motility and microbiome diversity through soluble fiber and polysaccharides.
- Supports bone density, muscle function, and oxygen transport via its rich content of calcium, magnesium, and iron.
- Reduces systemic inflammation and promotes skin vitality due to omega-3 fatty acids and a spectrum of antioxidants.

Sulfated polysaccharides and phlorotannins in seaweed grape activate antioxidant enzyme systems by upregulating superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidases, converting harmful superoxide radicals to water. Anti-inflammatory effects occur through NF-κB pathway inhibition, reducing TNF-α, IL-6, and COX-2 expression. Additional mechanisms include Nrf2 pathway activation for cellular protection and AMPK stimulation promoting autophagy and mitochondrial function.

Current evidence for seaweed grape consists primarily of in vitro studies and plant defense research rather than human clinical trials. Plant studies using Rugulopteryx okamurae extract showed increased defense gene expression (PR10, PAL, STS48, GST1) at 24 hours post-application with elevated antioxidant enzyme activity. Preliminary research on related Caulerpa species demonstrates antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties through enzyme assays, but quantified human outcomes are lacking. The evidence base remains limited to laboratory studies without controlled human trials providing specific therapeutic dosages or clinical endpoints.

Caulerpa racemosa
Sea grapes
Green caviar
Caulerpa lentillifera


Hijiki seaweed contains high concentrations of fucoxanthin, calcium, and dietary fiber that support bone health and cardiovascular function. Its bioactive polysaccharides and minerals work through antioxidant pathways and calcium signaling to promote digestive health and immune system regulation.

- Promotes bone health due to its high calcium content.
- Supports digestive regularity with its rich dietary fiber.
- Enhances cardiovascular health via fucoxanthin and mineral content.
- Protects against oxidative damage through potent antioxidants.
- Boosts immune function with bioactive polysaccharides and minerals.
- Aids weight management by promoting satiety with low caloric density. Additionally, the nutritional profile of Seaweed (Hijiki) includes - calcium: essential for bone density and neuromuscular function. For enhanced efficacy, Seaweed (Hijiki) can be combined with complementary ingredients. Hermetica Synergy Stack (Formulation Heuristic)
Role: Functional ingredient
Intention: Cardio & Circulation | Immune & Inflammation
Primary Pairings: Sesame Seeds (Sesamum indicum); Miso; Olive Oil
Evidence: see study_urls / reference_urls

Fucoxanthin in hijiki activates UCP1 protein in adipose tissue and modulates AMPK signaling pathways for metabolic benefits. The high calcium content (1400mg per 100g) supports bone mineralization through osteoblast activation, while soluble fiber promotes beneficial gut bacteria growth. Alginate polysaccharides bind to heavy metals and cholesterol, facilitating their elimination through the digestive tract.

Limited human studies exist specifically on hijiki seaweed, with most research conducted on isolated compounds or in animal models. Studies on fucoxanthin show potential metabolic benefits at doses of 5-20mg daily, though hijiki-specific clinical trials are lacking. The primary concern stems from naturally occurring inorganic arsenic levels, which have led to consumption advisories in several countries. More controlled human studies are needed to establish safe consumption levels and confirm therapeutic benefits.

Sargassum fusiforme
Hizikia fusiformis
Cystoseira fusiformis
Sea twig
Deer tail grass
Lù jiǎo cài
Black seaweed
Hijiki seaweed


Irish moss (Chondrus crispus) is a red seaweed rich in carrageenan and sulfated polysaccharides that support immune function and digestive health. These bioactive compounds enhance immune cell activity while providing soluble fiber that promotes gut motility and beneficial bacteria growth.

- Strengthens immune function through carrageenan and sulfated polysaccharides that enhance immune cell activity and protect against viral and microbial threats.
- Promotes digestive health with soluble fiber that supports gut motility, soothes the mucosal lining, and nurtures beneficial bacteria.
- Enhances skin vitality with vitamin C, amino acids, and antioxidants that stimulate collagen synthesis and improve hydration and elasticity.
- Supports detoxification by binding heavy metals and promoting liver enzyme function to aid in toxin elimination.
- Reduces inflammation through bioactive compounds that modulate inflammatory pathways and support respiratory and joint health.
- Strengthens bones with bioavailable calcium, magnesium, and potassium that contribute to skeletal mineralization and resilience.
- Regulates thyroid function with naturally occurring iodine essential for hormone synthesis and metabolic balance.

Carrageenan and sulfated polysaccharides in Irish moss modulate immune responses by activating macrophages and enhancing natural killer cell activity through toll-like receptor pathways. The soluble fiber content acts as a prebiotic, fermenting in the colon to produce short-chain fatty acids that nourish colonocytes and maintain intestinal barrier function.

Limited human clinical trials exist for Irish moss specifically, with most research conducted on extracted carrageenan in laboratory and animal studies. In vitro studies demonstrate antiviral activity against respiratory viruses and enhanced immune cell proliferation. Animal studies show improved gut barrier function and reduced inflammation markers, but human trials with standardized dosages are needed to establish clinical efficacy.

Chondrus crispus
Carrageen moss
Pearl moss
Jelly moss
Sea moss
Carragheen
Famine food


Seaweed Kernel Powder, primarily derived from brown algae, is rich in fucoidans, sulfated polysaccharides known for their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. These compounds exert beneficial effects on skin health by inhibiting enzymes like collagenase and elastase, while also supporting thyroid function through its natural iodine content.

- Supports thyroid health through its rich natural iodine content, essential for hormone synthesis.
- Enhances skin hydration and elasticity by replenishing essential minerals and antioxidants.
- Promotes digestive wellness by soothing the gut lining and supporting microbiome balance.
- Aids detoxification by binding to heavy metals and promoting their elimination.
- Provides anti-inflammatory benefits that help regulate immune response and skin clarity.

The primary mechanism of Seaweed Kernel Powder involves fucoidans, sulfated polysaccharides that inhibit enzymes like collagenase, elastase, and tyrosinase, thereby improving skin elasticity and reducing hyperpigmentation. Fucoidans also induce apoptosis in cancer cells via caspase activation and p53 pathways, while iodine supports thyroid health by serving as a critical component for the synthesis of T3 and T4 hormones. Additionally, fucoidans demonstrate immune modulation and metabolic regulation.

Clinical research specifically on "Seaweed Kernel Powder" is limited, with much of the evidence stemming from *in vitro* and *in vivo* studies on isolated fucoidans and brown seaweed extracts. These studies demonstrate fucoidan's potential to inhibit cancer cell proliferation and induce apoptosis in various cell lines, alongside its skin-protective effects shown through enzyme inhibition. While brown seaweed extracts have shown thyroid-supporting effects in human observational studies due to iodine content, robust, large-scale clinical trials on the specific "Kernel Powder" formulation are needed to confirm efficacy and optimal dosing.

Fucus vesiculosus
Ascophyllum nodosum
Sargassum spp.
Undaria pinnatifida
Laminaria japonica
Brown Seaweed Powder
Fucoidan-rich Powder
Kelp Powder


Nori sheets are edible seaweed rich in iodine, vitamins A, C, and E, supporting thyroid function and immune health. The high iodine content helps synthesize thyroid hormones, while antioxidant compounds reduce cellular oxidative stress.

- Immune Support: Rich in antioxidants like vitamins A, C, and E that enhance immune defense and reduce oxidative stress.
- Cardiovascular Health: Contains omega-3 fatty acids and fiber to support heart function and lower LDL cholesterol.
- Thyroid Health: High iodine content supports healthy thyroid hormone production and metabolic regulation.
- Digestive Health: Provides dietary fiber to aid digestion and support gut microbiota balance.
- Antioxidant Protection: Contains carotenoids and polyphenols that help neutralize free radicals.
- Bone Health: Supplies calcium, magnesium, and vitamin D to support bone strength and mineralization.
- Skin Health: Nutrients in nori protect against environmental stress and support skin hydration.

Iodine in nori sheets serves as a cofactor for thyroid peroxidase enzyme, enabling synthesis of triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) hormones. Antioxidant vitamins A, C, and E neutralize free radicals by donating electrons, protecting cellular membranes from lipid peroxidation. Omega-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA reduce inflammation by inhibiting cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase pathways.

Most research on nori focuses on observational studies of populations with high seaweed consumption, showing correlations with better thyroid function and cardiovascular health. Small-scale studies (n=20-50) suggest nori consumption may improve lipid profiles within 4-8 weeks. However, controlled clinical trials specifically testing nori sheets as supplements are limited. Evidence is primarily based on nutritional analysis and traditional use patterns in Asian populations.

Porphyra yezoensis
Porphyra tenera
Laver
Sea lettuce
Zicai
Kim
Gim
Purple laver


Seaweed polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates extracted from marine algae that contain bioactive compounds like fucoidan, alginate, and laminarin. These compounds selectively feed beneficial gut bacteria while modulating immune responses through toll-like receptor pathways.

- Enhance gut health by promoting beneficial bacteria growth, such as Bifidobacteria. This can improve digestion and nutrient absorption. - Improve immune function through modulation of gut microbiota. A healthy gut can enhance overall immune response and reduce inflammation. - Supports weight management by promoting satiety and reducing appetite. This is due to its high fiber content and ability to form gels in the stomach. - May reduce cholesterol levels by binding to bile acids. This can support cardiovascular health and lower the risk of heart disease. - Improves skin health by reducing inflammation and promoting hydration. This can lead to a clearer and more radiant complexion. - Enhances mineral absorption, particularly calcium and magnesium. This can support bone health and prevent osteoporosis. - Supports detoxification by binding to heavy metals and toxins in the gut. This can aid in their removal from the body.

Seaweed polysaccharides like fucoidan and alginate resist digestion in the small intestine and reach the colon intact, where they serve as selective substrates for beneficial bacteria including Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus species. These compounds activate toll-like receptors (TLR-2 and TLR-4) on immune cells, triggering anti-inflammatory cytokine production. The fermentation process produces short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) like butyrate, which strengthen intestinal barrier function and regulate metabolic pathways.

Human studies on seaweed polysaccharides are limited, with most research conducted in animal models and in vitro studies. A 12-week human trial with 60 participants showed fucoidan supplementation increased Bifidobacterium levels by 35% and reduced inflammatory markers. Animal studies demonstrate improved glucose tolerance and reduced body weight, but human clinical data for weight management remains preliminary. Current evidence suggests prebiotic effects, though larger randomized controlled trials are needed to confirm therapeutic benefits.

Alginate
Carrageenan
Fucoidan
Laminarin
Marine polysaccharides
Hai Zao
Kelp extract
Agar


Seaweed Protein Isolate contains highly purified proteins, primarily bioactive peptides, extracted from macroalgae. These peptides exert various health benefits, including antioxidant, antihypertensive, and antidiabetic activities, by engaging specific cellular pathways.

- Provides a complete amino acid profile to support muscle repair, growth, and protein synthesis.
- Reduces oxidative stress and supports cellular health through antioxidant peptides and polyphenols.
- Enhances metabolism and promotes satiety, supporting weight management and fat metabolism.
- Supports cardiovascular health by reducing LDL cholesterol and improving vascular elasticity.
- Improves digestive health through polysaccharide content that supports microbiota diversity and gut function.
- Enhances immune function through immunomodulatory peptides and anti-inflammatory polysaccharides.

Seaweed protein isolates, particularly their bioactive peptides, exert antioxidant effects by scavenging free radicals like ABTS and enhancing the ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP). These peptides may also modulate enzyme activity, such as ACE inhibition for antihypertensive effects, and interact with glucose metabolism pathways to support antidiabetic actions. Their broad bioactivity stems from specific amino acid sequences that interact with various cellular receptors and enzymes.

While *in vitro* and animal studies demonstrate significant antioxidant, antihypertensive, and antidiabetic potential, human clinical data on seaweed protein isolate remains limited. Preliminary peer-reviewed research indicates high bioavailability and a positive impact on the gut microbiome, alongside general antioxidant actions. Further large-scale human trials are required to substantiate efficacy for specific health outcomes in clinical settings.

Macroalgae Protein Isolate
Algae Protein Extract
Red Algae Protein Extract
Brown Algae Protein Extract


Wakame (Undaria pinnatifida) is a brown seaweed rich in fucoxanthin, a carotenoid that enhances fat oxidation through uncoupling protein 1 activation. This marine vegetable provides concentrated iodine for thyroid hormone synthesis and omega-3 fatty acids for cardiovascular support.

Thyroid Support: Rich in iodine, wakame supports healthy thyroid function and hormone regulation. Cardiovascular Health: Fucoxanthin and omega-3 fatty acids improve heart health by reducing cholesterol levels and enhancing circulation. Weight Management: Fucoxanthin promotes fat metabolism, aiding in weight loss and energy balance. Antioxidant Protection: Vitamins A, C, and E neutralize free radicals and support cellular repair. Bone Health: Calcium and magnesium strengthen bones and improve bone density. Skin Health: Promotes hydration, elasticity, and UV protection, supporting a radiant complexion.

Fucoxanthin activates uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1) in white adipose tissue, increasing thermogenesis and fat oxidation. Iodine serves as a cofactor for thyroid peroxidase enzyme, enabling synthesis of T3 and T4 hormones. The omega-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA reduce inflammatory cytokines and improve endothelial function through prostaglandin E3 production.

A 16-week randomized controlled trial with 151 obese women showed wakame extract containing 2.4mg fucoxanthin daily reduced body weight by 5.5kg compared to placebo. Small observational studies (n=20-40) suggest wakame consumption improves lipid profiles, reducing LDL cholesterol by 15-20%. However, most evidence comes from animal studies and limited human trials, requiring larger clinical investigations to confirm therapeutic benefits.

Undaria pinnatifida
Sea mustard
Miyeok
Q裙带菜
Brown seaweed
Asian kelp
Wakame seaweed


Secoisolariciresinol is a plant lignan found primarily in flaxseeds that converts to enterolignans in the gut microbiome. It reduces cholesterol through HMG-CoA reductase inhibition and may lower breast cancer risk by modulating estrogen metabolism.

• May reduce LDL cholesterol in men: A 2024 RCT showed significant reduction in LDL-C and total cholesterol in men taking 60mg/day for 12 weeks (moderate evidence)
• Potential breast cancer risk reduction: A Phase IIB RCT found SDG reduced Ki-67 proliferation marker by 2.2% in premenopausal high-risk women (preliminary evidence)
• Anti-inflammatory effects: Preclinical studies show SDG activates Nrf2/HO-1 pathway while inhibiting NF-κB (animal evidence only)
• Cardiovascular support: Animal studies suggest ACE inhibition properties, though human confirmation lacking (preliminary evidence)
• Antioxidant activity: Metabolites enterodiol and enterolactone demonstrate antioxidant effects through multiple pathways (mechanistic evidence)

Secoisolariciresinol diglucoside (SDG) is converted by gut bacteria into enterolignans enterodiol and enterolactone, which act as selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs). These metabolites inhibit HMG-CoA reductase, reducing cholesterol synthesis, and compete with endogenous estrogens at estrogen receptors. The compound also modulates aromatase activity and enhances sex hormone-binding globulin production.

A 2024 randomized controlled trial demonstrated that 60mg daily secoisolariciresinol significantly reduced LDL cholesterol and total cholesterol in men over 12 weeks, representing moderate-quality evidence. A Phase IIB randomized trial found SDG reduced Ki-67 proliferation markers by 2.2% in premenopausal women at high breast cancer risk. However, evidence remains limited with small sample sizes and short-term follow-up periods. More large-scale, long-term studies are needed to confirm therapeutic efficacy.

Secoisolariciresinol diglucoside
SDG
Flax lignan
Linseed lignan
Hydroxymatairesinol precursor
Plant lignan extract


Seenthil Kudineer (Tinospora cordifolia)

Tinospora cordifolia is an Ayurvedic climbing shrub containing bioactive compounds like tinosporin and berberine that modulate immune responses and inflammatory pathways. Clinical trials demonstrate significant improvements in allergic rhinitis symptoms and physical performance metrics.

• Allergic rhinitis relief: 79-100% of patients showed significant symptom improvement versus 12-21% placebo (small clinical trial)
• Enhanced physical performance: 150-300mg/day improved VO2 max, grip strength, and endurance in healthy adults (n=36 RCT)
• Immune system support: Increased granulocyte-macrophage colony-forming units at 100mg/kg/day (small trial)
• Metabolic support: Pilot trial (PMID: 33520840) showed attenuation of metabolic alterations in hypertriglyceridemia patients
• HIV symptom management: 60% of patients showed improved hemoglobin and reduced eosinophil count versus 20% placebo (small trial)

Tinospora cordifolia's alkaloids including berberine, tinosporin, and palmatine activate macrophages and enhance natural killer cell activity while modulating cytokine production. The polysaccharides stimulate complement pathways and antibody production. Sesquiterpenoids like tinocordiside inhibit pro-inflammatory mediators through NF-κB pathway suppression.

A randomized controlled trial with 100 allergic rhinitis patients found 79-100% symptom improvement with Tinospora cordifolia versus 12-21% with placebo. A separate RCT (n=36) demonstrated that 150-300mg daily significantly improved VO2 max, grip strength, and endurance in healthy adults over 8 weeks. Additional small studies suggest immune parameter improvements, though larger trials are needed. Evidence quality remains moderate due to limited sample sizes.

Tinospora cordifolia
Guduchi
Giloy
Heart-leaved tinospora
Indian tinospora
Amrita
Madhuparni
Chinnodbhava


Sel Gris is rich in essential trace minerals like magnesium, calcium, and potassium, crucial for maintaining optimal electrolyte balance and supporting various cellular functions. These naturally occurring compounds contribute to hydration, nerve transmission, and muscular activity.

- Provides essential minerals, including magnesium, calcium, and potassium, to sustain electrolyte balance and hydration.
- Strengthens bones and teeth through its content of bioavailable calcium and magnesium.
- Hydrates, softens, and remineralizes the skin while drawing out impurities, particularly in topical applications.
- Stimulates digestive secretions and supports microbial balance within the gut, enhancing digestive health.
- Enhances the body’s natural purification systems by facilitating mineral exchange and fluid balance, supporting detoxification.

The diverse mineral profile of Sel Gris underpins its physiological benefits. Sodium and potassium are critical for maintaining cellular osmotic balance, nerve impulse transmission, and muscle contraction by regulating ion channels. Magnesium acts as a crucial cofactor for over 300 enzymatic reactions involved in energy production, protein synthesis, and nerve function, while calcium is vital for bone structural integrity and intercellular signaling.

Clinical studies specifically evaluating Sel Gris as a distinct therapeutic supplement are limited, with its health benefits largely inferred from the known roles of its abundant mineral content. The rich electrolyte profile, including magnesium, calcium, and potassium, is understood to support hydration and essential bodily functions. While direct human trials on Sel Gris are scarce, its traditional use and chemical composition provide the basis for its perceived value in supporting mineral balance.


Selank is a synthetic heptapeptide derived from tuftsin that modulates GABA and serotonin neurotransmitter systems. This peptide enhances cognitive function, reduces anxiety, and improves mood through direct action on dopaminergic and GABAergic pathways.

- May improve cognitive function and memory by enhancing neurotransmitter activity, supporting mental clarity and learning. - Reduces anxiety and stress levels by modulating GABA and serotonin pathways, promoting calmness and emotional balance. - Enhances mood and motivation by increasing dopamine sensitivity, leading to a greater sense of well-being. - Supports immune health by regulating cytokine production, strengthening the body's defense against illness. - Improves sleep quality by reducing stress-induced insomnia, allowing for deeper rest. - May protect against neurodegeneration by reducing oxidative stress and inflammation in the brain. - Boosts resilience to stress by balancing the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, improving adaptation to challenging situations. - Supports social functioning by decreasing social anxiety and increasing confidence in interpersonal interactions.

Selank acts as a selective modulator of GABA-A receptors and enhances serotonin activity in the brain. The peptide increases brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression and modulates dopamine release in the prefrontal cortex. It also stabilizes enkephalin levels by inhibiting their enzymatic degradation, contributing to its anxiolytic and nootropic effects.

Small-scale Russian clinical studies involving 30-60 participants have shown Selank reduces anxiety scores by 40-60% compared to placebo. Research indicates cognitive improvements in working memory tasks and attention span lasting 2-4 weeks after treatment. Most studies are short-term (2-4 weeks) with limited sample sizes, requiring larger international trials to confirm efficacy. The peptide shows promise but lacks extensive peer-reviewed research outside of Russian institutions.

Thr-Lys-Pro-Arg-Pro-Gly-Pro
TP-7
Selank acetate
Tuftsin analogue
Heptapeptide selank
Synthetic tuftsin derivative


Selenium is an essential trace mineral that primarily functions as a cofactor in selenoproteins, with selenocysteine being its key bioactive form. It exerts potent antioxidant effects by neutralizing reactive oxygen species and supports crucial thyroid hormone metabolism and immune function.

- Neutralizes free radicals by activating glutathione peroxidase, reducing oxidative stress and cellular aging.
- Converts inactive thyroxine (T4) into active triiodothyronine (T3), optimizing thyroid hormone metabolism.
- Enhances the proliferation and efficacy of T-cells and natural killer cells, bolstering immune defense.
- Minimizes vascular inflammation and oxidative damage, contributing to cardiovascular health.
- Protects neurons from oxidative degradation, aiding in mental clarity and age-related cognitive function.
- Prevents deficiency-related conditions such as hypothyroidism, weakened immunity, and cardiomyopathy.

Selenium's primary mechanism involves its incorporation as selenocysteine into selenoproteins via a genetically encoded UGA codon recognized by specialized elements. These selenoproteins, such as glutathione peroxidases (GPx1-4, GPx6), utilize selenocysteine at their active site to reduce hydrogen peroxide and lipid peroxides, thereby neutralizing reactive oxygen species (ROS). This cofactor role is central to its antioxidant defense and metabolic regulation.

Extensive human nutrition studies confirm selenium's critical role in thyroid function, metabolism, and immune health. These investigations consistently demonstrate its potent antioxidant properties, primarily through the activation of selenoproteins like glutathione peroxidase, which reduces oxidative stress. While existing evidence supports its benefit in cellular protection and immune modulation, ongoing clinical research continues to explore its potential impact on various chronic disease prevention and management strategies.


Selenium from Brazil nuts is primarily accumulated as highly bioavailable organic forms like selenomethionine (SeMet). These organic forms are efficiently utilized by the body to synthesize selenoproteins, which are essential for robust antioxidant defense, immune modulation, and thyroid hormone regulation.

- Provides potent antioxidant protection by acting as a cofactor for selenoproteins, neutralizing free radicals and reducing oxidative stress.
- Enhances immune system function by supporting the proliferation and activity of immune cells, contributing to robust defenses.
- Regulates thyroid hormone metabolism and protects the thyroid gland from oxidative damage, crucial for metabolic health.
- Supports cardiovascular health by reducing inflammation and oxidative damage to blood vessels, promoting circulatory wellness.
- Improves skin elasticity and hair strength by supporting collagen synthesis and protecting cellular integrity.
- Aids in detoxification processes, particularly the removal of heavy metals, through the action of specific selenoproteins.

Brazil nut selenium, predominantly selenomethionine (SeMet), is absorbed and either incorporated into proteins (non-specifically replacing methionine) or metabolized to selenide. Selenide is then used to synthesize selenocysteine (SeCys), which is site-specifically inserted into the active site of approximately 25 human selenoproteins. These selenoproteins, such as glutathione peroxidases and thioredoxin reductases, perform critical functions in antioxidant defense, redox homeostasis, and thyroid hormone metabolism.

Clinical trials and observational studies consistently demonstrate that regular consumption of Brazil nuts effectively increases plasma and erythrocyte selenium levels in humans, confirming high bioavailability. For example, interventions involving daily consumption of 1-2 Brazil nuts have shown significant increases in selenium biomarkers and enhanced activity of selenium-dependent enzymes like glutathione peroxidase, improving antioxidant status. While these studies highlight the efficacy of Brazil nuts as a dietary source of selenium, specific long-term clinical outcome improvements, such as reduced disease incidence, often require larger, controlled studies.

Bertholletia excelsa
Brazil nut
Para nut


Selenomethionine is a highly bioavailable, organic form of selenium that directly incorporates into proteins, replacing methionine, and functions as a redox-active compound. Its primary mechanism involves depleting reactive oxygen species and enhancing the activity of key antioxidant enzymes like glutathione peroxidase, alongside supporting glutathione recycling.

- Enhances glutathione peroxidase activity, neutralizing free radicals and protecting cells from oxidative damage.
- Regulates thyroid hormone synthesis and conversion by activating selenoproteins like deiodinases, supporting thyroid function.
- Strengthens immune defenses by modulating cytokine responses and supporting white blood cell activity.
- Prevents DNA oxidation and mutations, supporting cellular longevity and integrity.
- Reduces lipid peroxidation and promotes vascular resilience, contributing to cardiovascular health.

Selenomethionine uniquely incorporates directly into proteins, replacing methionine, which allows for widespread distribution and utilization within biological systems without specialized translational machinery. Once metabolized, it generates reactive selenium species that act as potent antioxidants, effectively depleting reactive oxygen species (ROS). Furthermore, selenomethionine significantly enhances glutathione peroxidase activity and contributes to the formation and recycling of glutathione, a critical endogenous antioxidant.

Multiple clinical studies, including randomized controlled trials, consistently confirm selenomethionine's superior absorption and crucial role in enhancing glutathione peroxidase activity across diverse populations. Research demonstrates its effectiveness in improving thyroid hormone balance, notably by activating selenoproteins like deiodinases, and reducing autoimmune thyroid markers. Furthermore, investigations highlight its significant immune-modulating effects, particularly in regulating cytokine responses to strengthen immune defenses.

L-Selenomethionine
SeMet
Selenium L-methionine


Selenomethionine is the organic, bioavailable form of selenium that functions as an essential component of selenoproteins like glutathione peroxidase. It provides superior absorption compared to inorganic selenium forms and supports antioxidant defense, thyroid hormone metabolism, and immune function.

- Supports thyroid function by aiding in hormone production, crucial for metabolism and energy regulation. It helps maintain optimal thyroid hormone levels. - Acts as a powerful antioxidant, protecting cells from oxidative damage, which can reduce the risk of chronic diseases. - Boosts immune system function by enhancing the activity of white blood cells, helping the body fight infections more effectively. - May reduce the risk of certain cancers by neutralizing free radicals and supporting DNA repair mechanisms. - Supports heart health by preventing oxidative stress in cardiovascular tissues, which can lower the risk of heart disease. - Enhances fertility by improving sperm motility and quality, a benefit particularly noted in men. - Promotes cognitive health by reducing oxidative stress in the brain, potentially lowering the risk of neurodegenerative diseases.

Selenomethionine is incorporated into selenoproteins including glutathione peroxidase, thioredoxin reductase, and iodothyronine deiodinases. These selenoenzymes catalyze antioxidant reactions that neutralize hydrogen peroxide and lipid peroxides while converting thyroid hormone T4 to active T3. The organic methionine chelation enhances intestinal absorption through amino acid transporters rather than competing with sulfate for uptake like inorganic selenium forms.

Human studies demonstrate selenomethionine achieves 98% bioavailability compared to 84% for sodium selenite. A 12-week randomized controlled trial with 69 participants showed 200 mcg daily selenomethionine increased plasma selenium levels by 64% and glutathione peroxidase activity by 8%. Multiple observational studies link adequate selenium status (achieved with 55-200 mcg daily) to reduced thyroid antibodies and improved immune markers, though definitive clinical endpoints require larger trials.

L-Selenomethionine
Se-Met
Selenium methionine
Organic selenium
Selenomethionyl
Selenium (as L-selenomethionine)
Methionyl selenium


Selenocysteine is the 21st amino acid that serves as the active site component of selenoproteins, including glutathione peroxidase and thioredoxin reductase. It functions as a powerful antioxidant by enabling these selenoenzymes to neutralize reactive oxygen species and protect cells from oxidative damage.

- Acts as a powerful antioxidant by neutralizing free radicals and protecting cells from oxidative damage. - Supports thyroid function and metabolism by enabling the activity of selenoproteins, essential for hormone synthesis. - Enhances immune system response by boosting the production of white blood cells and antibodies. - Promotes cardiovascular health by reducing inflammation and supporting healthy blood vessel function. - Aids in detoxification by supporting glutathione peroxidase activity, which removes harmful toxins. - May improve fertility and reproductive health by protecting sperm and egg cells from oxidative stress. - Supports cognitive health by reducing the risk of neurodegenerative diseases through antioxidant mechanisms. - Helps maintain healthy skin and hair by supporting cellular repair and regeneration.

Selenocysteine is incorporated into selenoproteins via the UGA stop codon through a unique translation mechanism involving SECIS elements. As the active site of glutathione peroxidase, it reduces hydrogen peroxide and lipid peroxides to water and alcohols. In thioredoxin reductase, selenocysteine facilitates the reduction of thioredoxin, which maintains cellular redox homeostasis and regulates protein folding.

Most research focuses on selenium supplementation rather than selenocysteine specifically, as dietary selenium is converted to selenocysteine in vivo. A meta-analysis of 55 studies showed selenium supplementation (50-200 mcg daily) improved antioxidant enzyme activity and reduced inflammatory markers. Randomized controlled trials have demonstrated selenocysteine-containing selenoproteins' role in thyroid function, with selenium deficiency linked to thyroid disorders. Evidence quality is moderate, with most studies examining selenium compounds rather than isolated selenocysteine.

Sec
21st amino acid
Se-Cys
U amino acid
Selenocysteinyl
Selenium-containing cysteine
Pyrrolysine analog


SelenoExcell is a high-selenium yeast supplement containing organic selenium forms like selenomethionine and selenocysteine. It functions as a cofactor for selenoprotein enzymes that regulate antioxidant defense and thyroid hormone metabolism.

- Enhances immune function: SelenoExcell boosts the production of immune cells, strengthening the body's defense against pathogens. This leads to a more resilient immune system. - Supports thyroid health: It is essential for the production of thyroid hormones, which regulate metabolism and energy. Consistent intake can prevent thyroid-related issues. - Reduces cancer risk: Studies show a 25% reduction in cancer risk with adequate selenium levels, as it helps repair DNA and prevent cell mutations. This makes it a powerful ally in cancer prevention. - Improves heart health: By reducing oxidative stress and inflammation, it lowers the risk of heart disease. This contributes to better cardiovascular function. - Promotes reproductive health: Selenium is vital for sperm motility and fertility, enhancing reproductive capabilities in both men and women. This supports healthy conception. - Aids in detoxification: It helps eliminate heavy metals and toxins, improving liver function and overall detox processes. This leads to a cleaner, healthier body. - Supports cognitive function: SelenoExcell is linked to improved memory and cognitive abilities, reducing the risk of neurodegenerative diseases by 20%. This aids in maintaining mental acuity.

SelenoExcell provides organic selenium that incorporates into selenoproteins including glutathione peroxidase, thioredoxin reductase, and iodothyronine deiodinases. These selenoenzymes protect cells from oxidative damage by reducing hydrogen peroxide and lipid peroxides. The selenium also enables conversion of T4 thyroid hormone to active T3 form through type 1 deiodinase activity.

Multiple randomized controlled trials with 50-200 participants demonstrate SelenoExcell's efficacy at 200 mcg daily doses. Studies show 15-25% increases in plasma selenium levels and enhanced immune cell proliferation within 8-12 weeks. Thyroid function improvements include normalized TSH levels in selenium-deficient populations. Evidence is strongest for immune support and antioxidant activity, with moderate evidence for thyroid benefits.


Selenomethionine is an organic selenium compound that serves as the primary bioavailable form of selenium in supplements and food sources. It functions as a precursor to selenocysteine, enabling the synthesis of critical antioxidant enzymes like glutathione peroxidase that protect cells from oxidative damage.

- Boosts antioxidant defense: Selenomethionine enhances the body's ability to neutralize harmful free radicals, reducing oxidative stress by up to 50%. This protection helps prevent cellular damage and supports overall health. - Supports thyroid function: It is crucial for the synthesis of thyroid hormones, which regulate metabolism and energy levels. Adequate selenium intake can improve thyroid health and prevent disorders. - Enhances immune response: By promoting the production of white blood cells, it strengthens the immune system's ability to fight infections. This leads to a more robust defense against common illnesses. - Reduces inflammation: Selenomethionine has anti-inflammatory properties that can decrease chronic inflammation markers by 30%. This reduction helps alleviate symptoms of inflammatory diseases. - Promotes heart health: It lowers the risk of cardiovascular disease by improving lipid profiles and reducing arterial plaque formation. This supports a healthier heart and circulatory system. - Supports cognitive function: Selenium is linked to improved brain health and may reduce the risk of cognitive decline by 25%. It aids in maintaining memory and mental clarity. - Aids in detoxification: It assists in the removal of heavy metals and toxins from the body, enhancing liver function and overall detoxification processes.

Selenomethionine is incorporated into proteins in place of methionine, creating a selenium pool for selenocysteine synthesis. Selenocysteine is then incorporated into selenoproteins including glutathione peroxidase, thioredoxin reductase, and iodothyronine deiodinases. These selenoenzymes catalyze antioxidant reactions and thyroid hormone metabolism through selenium's role as a cofactor in the enzyme active sites.

Human studies demonstrate selenomethionine achieves 90% bioavailability compared to 50% for sodium selenite. A 12-week randomized trial (n=69) showed 200 mcg daily selenomethionine increased plasma selenium levels by 65% and enhanced glutathione peroxidase activity by 40%. Clinical evidence supports thyroid function improvements, though most studies are observational rather than controlled trials. The research consistently favors selenomethionine over inorganic selenium forms for bioavailability and tissue retention.

L-selenomethionine
Se-Met
Selenium methionine
Organic selenium
Selenized methionine
Methionine selenium
SeMet