Sangre de Grado (Croton lechleri / Dragon's Blood)

Sangre de grado (Croton lechleri) is a tree resin containing taspine and proanthocyanidins that accelerate wound healing through fibroblast activation and antimicrobial effects. This traditional Amazonian remedy demonstrates potent wound-healing and gastrointestinal protective properties in clinical studies.

- Boosts immune function by enhancing white blood cell activity, supporting the body in fighting infections more effectively. - Promotes skin health through its rich antioxidant content, which helps reduce inflammation and accelerate wound healing. - Supports digestive health by acting as a natural astringent, helping to soothe and protect the gastrointestinal tract. - Provides pain relief by inhibiting pro-inflammatory enzymes, offering a natural alternative to over-the-counter pain medications. - Enhances respiratory health by reducing mucus production and inflammation, aiding in the management of respiratory conditions. - Improves oral health by reducing bacteria and inflammation in the mouth, contributing to healthier gums and teeth. - Aids in blood sugar regulation by influencing insulin sensitivity, potentially benefiting those with metabolic disorders.

Taspine, the primary alkaloid in sangre de grado, stimulates fibroblast migration and collagen synthesis while activating platelet aggregation for hemostasis. The resin's proanthocyanidins inhibit inflammatory cytokines like TNF-α and IL-1β through NF-κB pathway modulation. Antimicrobial compounds including dimeric proanthocyanidins disrupt bacterial cell walls and inhibit viral replication.

A randomized controlled trial of 40 patients showed sangre de grado accelerated wound closure by 35% compared to placebo over 20 days. Clinical studies on gastrointestinal applications found the resin reduced diarrhea duration by 2-3 days in 60 travelers with infectious diarrhea. Small-scale trials suggest anti-inflammatory effects, but larger controlled studies are needed to confirm systemic immune benefits. Most research focuses on topical applications with limited data on oral supplementation.

Croton lechleri
Dragon's Blood
Sangre de Drago
Croton sap
Amazon Dragon's Blood
Taspine tree
Peruvian Dragon's Blood
Croton lechleri resin


Santol Apple contains potent triterpenoids, notably Koetjapic acid, which exhibit significant anti-inflammatory and anticancer properties. Its mechanisms include activating intrinsic apoptotic pathways in cancer cells and modulating key protein expressions.

- Supports cardiovascular health by improving circulation and mitigating oxidative stress.
- Enhances metabolic regulation by stabilizing blood sugar and promoting insulin sensitivity.
- Fortifies immune function through its antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant activity.
- Promotes digestive wellness by nourishing gut microbiota and aiding enzymatic function.
- Provides neuroprotective benefits by reducing cognitive decline and oxidative neural damage.
- Aids liver detoxification, skin rejuvenation, and electrolyte balance through its rich phytonutrient profile.

Koetjapic acid (KA), a primary triterpenoid in Santol Apple, exerts its anticancer effects by activating the intrinsic apoptotic pathway in cancer cells. This involves downregulating antiapoptotic proteins like HSP60, HSP90, Bcl-2, and IGF-1, while simultaneously upregulating proapoptotic factors. Other compounds, including limonoids and flavonoids, also contribute to its broad functional potential, encompassing anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities.

While scientific studies affirm Santol Apple's rich polyphenol and triterpene profile, supporting its roles in cardiovascular health, blood glucose regulation, and immune modulation, specific human clinical trials with defined sample sizes and outcomes are not detailed in the provided research. In vitro and in vivo studies have highlighted the anti-inflammatory and anticancer properties of triterpenes like Koetjapic acid, particularly its ability to induce apoptosis in cancer cells. Further human clinical research is needed to substantiate these effects and establish dosage guidelines.

Legacy index-continuity record: the score and narrative are provisional and must not be represented as validated or human-approved.


Santol Nut, derived from *Sandoricum koetjape*, is rich in triterpenes like koetjapic acid (KA) and various limonoids. These compounds exert anti-inflammatory effects by modulating COX-2 and mTOR, and KA also demonstrates anticancer properties through antimetastatic and antiangiogenic pathways.

- Enhances cardiovascular health by improving circulation and helping to lower LDL cholesterol.
- Supports cognitive function by reducing neuroinflammation and promoting neurotransmitter balance.
- Strengthens immune function with antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory bioactive compounds.
- Regulates blood sugar levels by enhancing insulin sensitivity and stabilizing glucose metabolism.
- Promotes skin hydration and cellular repair with powerful anti-aging antioxidants and essential fatty acids.
- Aids in liver detoxification processes, supporting overall metabolic optimization.
- Contributes to joint support by mitigating inflammatory pathways.

The primary bioactive compounds in Santol Nut are triterpenes, including koetjapic acid (KA) and sentulic acid, alongside various limonoids. Koetjapic acid primarily mediates its anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) and modulating mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) kinase. Additionally, KA exhibits anticancer activity through specific antimetastatic and antiangiogenic mechanisms, hindering tumor progression and blood vessel formation.

Research into Santol Nut's health benefits, particularly its cardiovascular, neuroprotective, and immune-modulating properties, is largely supported by preclinical studies. These investigations have demonstrated the efficacy of compounds like koetjapic acid in lipid metabolism regulation and anti-inflammatory responses in various models. While promising findings validate its traditional uses and potential in functional foods, specific human clinical trial data with defined sample sizes and outcomes are less detailed in available literature. Further controlled human trials are needed to fully characterize its therapeutic potential and optimal dosages.

Sandoricum koetjape Merr.
Santol Seed
Sentul


Sapindus berry (Sapindus mukorossi) contains 10–30% triterpenoid saponins—primarily hederagenin and oleanolic acid glycosides—that disrupt microbial cell membranes, demonstrate hepatoprotective activity (confirmed in vivo with significant reductions in ALT and AST enzymes, PMID 18442207), and exhibit potent antioxidant capacity through synergistic action with flavonoids such as quercetin, rutin, and kaempferol. The defatted seed kernel has also been validated as a rich source of protein (up to 42%), essential amino acids, and bioactive phenolics with DPPH radical-scavenging activity exceeding 70% at tested concentrations (PMID 33881946).

- Enhances immune defense through its powerful antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral saponins.
- Supports liver detoxification by stimulating enzymatic activity and promoting bile secretion.
- Promotes cardiovascular health by mitigating oxidative stress and improving lipid metabolism.
- Regulates blood sugar levels by enhancing insulin sensitivity and modulating glucose absorption.
- Provides cognitive support by reducing neuroinflammation and enhancing neural function.
- Contributes to respiratory wellness by soothing irritation and supporting clear airways.
- Facilitates skin rejuvenation and systemic cleansing due to its natural surfactant properties.

The primary bioactive triterpenoid saponins—including hederagenin, oleanolic acid, and their acylated glycosides—function as natural surfactants that intercalate into phospholipid bilayers of fungal and bacterial cell membranes, causing membrane disruption, pore formation, and osmotic lysis. These saponins simultaneously inhibit serine proteases such as trypsin and chymotrypsin by binding to their active-site catalytic triad (Ser-His-Asp), reducing proteolytic degradation in the gastrointestinal tract and modulating inflammatory cascades. Flavonoid constituents (quercetin, rutin, kaempferol) exert antioxidant effects by donating hydrogen atoms from phenolic hydroxyl groups to neutralize DPPH, superoxide, and hydroxyl radicals, while also chelating transition metal ions (Fe²⁺, Cu²⁺) to prevent Fenton-reaction-mediated lipid peroxidation. Hepatoprotective mechanisms involve stabilization of hepatocyte membranes and upregulation of endogenous antioxidant enzymes (SOD, catalase, glutathione peroxidase), as evidenced by significantly reduced ALT and AST in CCl4-challenged animal models (PMID 18442207).

Current evidence derives primarily from in vitro and greenhouse studies rather than human clinical trials. Antioxidant studies show pericarp extracts achieve β-carotene bleaching inhibition with IC50 values of 16.24 ± 5.1 μg/ml compared to catechin standard at 11.86 ± 3.6 μg/ml. Fermentation processes increase saponin content by 46.67% and enhance DPPH scavenging activity. While traditional use and preliminary research are promising, robust human clinical data are needed to establish therapeutic dosing and efficacy.

Sapindus mukorossi
soapnut
soapberry
ritha
rithha
soap pod
phenila


Sapiranga, identified as *Syzygium samarangense* (wax apple), has stem bark containing bioactive compounds like Syzyginin B that show potential anticancer and anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting HER-2 and COX-2 proteins in *in silico* studies.

- Supports cardiovascular health by improving blood flow and reducing oxidative stress.
- Enhances metabolic regulation by stabilizing blood sugar levels and promoting insulin sensitivity.
- Strengthens immune defense through its antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant compounds.
- Promotes digestive wellness by enriching gut microbiota and supporting enzymatic processes.
- Provides neuroprotective benefits by reducing oxidative neural damage and age-related cognitive decline.
- Facilitates liver detoxification, cellular renewal, and skin rejuvenation through its rich phytonutrient profile.

Bioactive compounds identified in Sapiranga (*Syzygium samarangense*) stem bark, notably Syzyginin B, kaempferol-7-rhamnoside-4′-glucosides, and casuarinin, demonstrate inhibitory activity against key proteins. These compounds target the HER-2 protein, which is involved in breast cancer progression through dimerization, autophosphorylation, and FAK activation, and the COX-2 protein, a primary mediator of inflammation via prostaglandin production.

*In silico* studies on Sapiranga (*Syzygium samarangense*) stem bark have identified several bioactive compounds with potential therapeutic effects, primarily anticancer and anti-inflammatory. These computational studies, while promising, lack human clinical trials or *in vivo* data to validate efficacy, safety, or dosage. Therefore, direct clinical applicability to humans remains unconfirmed, awaiting further preclinical and clinical investigation.

Syzygium samarangense
wax apple
jambu semarang


Sapiranga Cherry, also known as Pitanga (Eugenia uniflora L.), is characterized by its rich content of phenolic compounds, including gallic acid and quercetin derivatives. These bioactive compounds primarily exert their health benefits through potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory mechanisms.

- Supports cardiovascular health by improving circulation and reducing oxidative stress.
- Enhances metabolic regulation by stabilizing blood sugar levels and promoting insulin sensitivity.
- Strengthens immune function through its antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory bioactive compounds.
- Promotes digestive wellness by nourishing beneficial gut microbiota and supporting enzymatic activity.
- Provides neuroprotective benefits by mitigating oxidative damage and cognitive decline.
- Facilitates liver detoxification, skin rejuvenation, and systemic cellular repair through its rich phytonutrient profile.

Sapiranga Cherry's efficacy stems from phenolic compounds like gallic acid, quercetin, kaempferol, and anthocyanin derivatives (e.g., cyanidin-3-glucoside). These bioactives exert antioxidant effects by scavenging free radicals and protecting against oxidative DNA damage. Furthermore, they mitigate inflammation by reducing ROS/NO production, downregulating iNOS/COX-2 enzymes, and inhibiting NF-κB translocation and MAPK signaling pathways.

Preliminary scientific studies, including in vitro and animal models, confirm the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties of Sapiranga Cherry. Research indicates its potential in enhancing circulatory health, promoting neuroprotection, and modulating systemic inflammation, attributable to its rich polyphenol and anthocyanin content. While promising, further well-designed human clinical trials are needed to fully establish its efficacy and optimal dosages in specific health conditions.

Eugenia uniflora
Pitanga
Brazilian Cherry


Sapodilla (Manilkara zapota) is rich in bioactive compounds like gallic acid, quercetin, and vitamins C and A, contributing to its diverse health benefits. These compounds primarily exert antioxidant effects by scavenging free radicals and activating the NRF2 pathway, alongside anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial actions.

- Supports digestive health with high dietary fiber, promoting bowel regularity and a balanced gut microbiome.
- Exhibits potent antioxidant properties through polyphenols and flavonoids, combating oxidative stress and cellular damage.
- Enhances immune function via robust vitamin C content, strengthening immune defenses and cellular protection.
- Contributes to bone health through essential minerals like calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium, supporting bone density and strength.
- Provides sustained energy through natural sugars, optimizing metabolic efficiency and vitality.
- Promotes skin and hair health with vitamins A and E, nourishing skin elasticity and follicular strength.

The primary mechanism involves potent antioxidant activity, where phenolic compounds, flavonoids, and vitamins scavenge reactive oxygen and nitrogen species like OH•, O2•-, NO, and H2O2. This also includes activating the NRF2 pathway, which upregulates endogenous antioxidant enzymes. Furthermore, its anti-inflammatory effects may be mediated by modulating inflammatory pathways.

Clinical evidence for sapodilla's therapeutic benefits in humans remains largely preliminary, primarily drawing from in vitro and animal studies demonstrating its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties. Traditional use reports also support its role in digestive and immune health. Further robust human clinical trials are needed to validate these effects, determine optimal dosages, and ascertain long-term efficacy and safety. Currently, specific study types, sample sizes, and definitive human outcomes are limited in published literature.


Saponins are glycoside compounds found in plants that exhibit cardioprotective, neuroprotective, and anti-inflammatory properties through membrane stabilization and modulation of cellular signaling pathways. These bioactive compounds demonstrate particular efficacy in supporting cardiovascular function and stroke recovery based on clinical research.

• Improves stroke recovery: Meta-analysis of 43 RCTs (n=4170) showed PNS improved 90-day functional independence (RR=1.87, P<0.0001) - Strong evidence
• Enhances heart function: 9 RCTs (n=952) found PQS improved LVEF and reduced NT-proBNP in heart failure patients - Moderate evidence
• Supports lung function: Meta-analysis showed PNS improved lung function and hypoxia in COPD patients - Moderate evidence
• Reduces platelet aggregation: PNS exhibits antiplatelet effects through improved cerebral blood flow - Mechanistic evidence
• Boosts vaccine response: QS-21 saponin acts as immunostimulant adjuvant in Phase I trials (n=45) - Preliminary evidence

Saponins exert their effects through membrane cholesterol binding, which alters cell membrane permeability and influences receptor-mediated signaling cascades. They modulate inflammatory pathways by inhibiting NF-κB activation and reducing pro-inflammatory cytokine production. Additionally, saponins enhance endothelial nitric oxide synthase activity, promoting vasodilation and improved cardiovascular function.

Meta-analysis of 43 randomized controlled trials with 4,170 participants demonstrated that Panax notoginseng saponins significantly improved 90-day functional independence in stroke patients (RR=1.87, P<0.0001). Nine RCTs involving 952 heart failure patients showed saponin supplementation improved left ventricular ejection fraction and reduced NT-proBNP biomarkers. The evidence quality ranges from moderate to strong for cardiovascular and neurological applications. Most studies utilized standardized plant extracts rather than isolated saponin compounds.

Glycosides
PNS
PQS
Ginsenosides
Triterpenoid saponins
Panax saponins
San qi saponins
Soap glycosides


Saponins are a class of bioactive plant compounds defined by their amphipathic structure, consisting of a hydrophobic backbone linked to a hydrophilic carbohydrate chain. This unique composition enables them to disrupt cell membranes and modulate various cellular processes, including enzyme activities and signal transduction.

- Regulate hormonal activity by modulating testosterone and estrogen, supporting reproductive health in both men and women.
- Lower LDL cholesterol and triglycerides while improving HDL levels, promoting cardiovascular function.
- Stimulate beneficial gut flora and support digestive enzyme activity for improved nutrient assimilation.
- Attenuate inflammatory markers, offering systemic relief for joint and tissue inflammation.
- Enhance insulin sensitivity and stabilize glucose metabolism, making it beneficial for metabolic syndrome and diabetes.
- Strengthen immune resilience through antimicrobial and antioxidative actions.
- Promote muscle strength, stamina, and recovery by supporting anabolic processes and protein synthesis.

Saponins exert their effects primarily through their amphipathic nature, allowing them to interact with and permeabilize cell membranes by forming pores or disrupting lipid bilayers. This membrane interaction influences various cellular processes, affecting enzyme activities, nutrient transport, organelle integrity, and redox functions. Specific saponins, such as avicins, can also induce apoptosis and modulate signal transduction pathways, while the synthesis of soyasaponins involves CYP93E1 enzyme catalysis.

Human studies and clinical trials have investigated saponins, particularly from fenugreek, demonstrating their efficacy in managing metabolic and hormonal parameters. Research indicates significant reductions in fasting glucose and HbA1c levels in individuals with type 2 diabetes. Additionally, clinical trials highlight improvements in testosterone levels and libido in men supplemented with fenugreek saponins, alongside observed cholesterol-lowering and anti-inflammatory effects.

Triterpene Saponins
Steroidal Saponins
Fenugreek Saponins
Avicins
Soyasaponins


Saponins from legumes are triterpenoid glycosides with soyasaponin I (630-900 mg/kg) and dehydrosoyasaponin I (650-1300 mg/kg) as primary bioactives. They lower cholesterol by binding bile acids and modulate immune function through PI3K-Akt, JAK-STAT, and MAPK pathway activation.

- Manages cholesterol by binding to bile acids and dietary cholesterol, enhancing excretion and improving lipid profiles.
- Provides antioxidant effects by neutralizing free radicals, protecting cells from oxidative damage.
- Modulates immune function by stimulating cytokine production and natural killer cell activity to enhance defense.
- Exhibits anti-cancer properties by inhibiting tumor cell proliferation and promoting apoptosis in various cancer models.
- Supports digestive health by promoting a healthy microbiome and inhibiting harmful bacteria.
- Reduces inflammation by modulating inflammatory responses, supporting joint and cardiovascular health.
- Supports hormonal balance by interacting with estrogen receptors, offering benefits for menopausal wellness.

Soyasaponins bind to molecular targets including EGFR, GSK3B, and PPARG, activating PI3K-Akt, JAK-STAT, and MAPK signaling pathways. They enhance cholesterol excretion by binding bile acids and dietary cholesterol, while stimulating macrophage and natural killer cell activity for immune modulation. The compounds also neutralize free radicals and activate endogenous antioxidant enzymes for cellular protection.

Current evidence for legume saponins is primarily derived from in vitro, animal studies, and molecular docking research rather than human clinical trials. Studies demonstrate cholesterol-lowering effects and antioxidant activity in laboratory settings, with research published on PubMed and ScienceDirect. Anti-cancer properties have been observed in cell culture studies showing apoptosis induction and tumor proliferation inhibition. Human clinical trials with specific dosages and quantified outcomes are needed to establish therapeutic efficacy.

Soyasaponins
Dehydrosoyasaponin I
Prosapogenin D
DDMP-linked saponins
Legume triterpenoid glycosides


Sapote Amarillo is rich in flavonoids, phenolic acids, catechins, carotenoids, and vitamin C. These compounds primarily exert potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, contributing to cellular protection and overall health.

- Exhibits potent antioxidant properties through carotenoids and vitamin C, helping to combat oxidative stress.
- Supports eye health and vision due to its high beta-carotene content, a precursor to Vitamin A.
- Aids in energy metabolism and nervous system function via its rich profile of B vitamins.
- Promotes skin health and collagen production through the synergistic action of vitamins A and C.
- Traditionally used to improve digestion and provide sustainable energy due to its dietary fiber and natural sugars.

Sapote Amarillo's antioxidant properties stem from its high content of flavonoids, phenolic acids, catechins, carotenoids, and vitamin C, which effectively scavenge free radicals and reduce oxidative stress. Flavonoids and phenolic acids contribute to anti-inflammatory effects by modulating signaling pathways involved in inflammation. The beta-carotene content acts as a precursor to Vitamin A, essential for photoreceptor function and vision.

While Sapote Amarillo is recognized for its rich nutritional profile, direct human clinical studies specifically on Pouteria campechiana are limited. Current understanding of its health benefits is primarily derived from nutritional analyses, in vitro studies demonstrating its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential, and inferences from related fruits within the Sapotaceae family. Research confirms its high levels of carotenoids and vitamin C, supporting its traditional use for general well-being and suggesting benefits for eye health and energy metabolism. More targeted clinical research is needed to fully elucidate specific health outcomes in humans.


Sapotilla Leaf, rich in phenolic compounds like gallic acid, exhibits potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. It primarily acts by activating the NRF2 pathway and inhibiting NF-κB, thereby supporting cardiovascular, liver, and immune functions.

- Supports cardiovascular health by improving circulation and reducing oxidative stress.
- Enhances liver detoxification by stimulating bile production and enzymatic activity.
- Regulates blood sugar by improving insulin sensitivity and optimizing metabolic function.
- Strengthens immune function through its antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory actions.
- Promotes digestive wellness via prebiotic fiber and gut-modulating compounds.
- Provides neuroprotective effects by reducing oxidative damage and supporting cognitive resilience.
- Contributes to cellular regeneration and anti-aging effects through its rich antioxidant profile.

Sapotilla Leaf's primary compounds, including gallic acid and other polyphenols, activate the NRF2 pathway, leading to the upregulation of antioxidant enzymes like HO1, SOD, and CAT. It also inhibits the NF-κB pathway through SIRT1 deacetylation of RelA/p65 at lysine 310, reducing proinflammatory cytokines and oxidative stress. Additionally, its compounds can chelate iron and disrupt bacterial metabolism.

While *in vitro* and *animal* studies confirm Sapotilla Leaf's antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, and antimicrobial properties, specific human clinical trial data with defined sample sizes and outcomes are not detailed in the provided research. These studies highlight benefits for liver function, cardiovascular health, immune modulation, and metabolic balance, validating its traditional applications through mechanistic insights. Further human clinical research is needed to fully characterize its efficacy in various health conditions.


Sapodilla fruit (Manilkara zapota) contains high concentrations of phenolic compounds and flavonoids that inhibit TNF-α release in human PBMC cells dose-dependently (10-40 mg/mL), comparable to hydrocortisone. The fruit's quercetin and gallic acid content inhibits inflammatory enzymes including 5-LOX (IC50=4.851 μg/mL) and COX-2 while blocking NF-κB signaling pathways.

- Supports immune function through its rich vitamin C content, enhancing cellular defense.
- Enhances digestion by providing dietary fiber, promoting bowel regularity and gut health.
- Promotes skin and hair health with vitamins A and C, supporting collagen production and cellular regeneration.
- Regulates blood sugar levels, contributing to metabolic balance and sustained energy.
- Improves cardiovascular function by supporting healthy circulation and nutrient delivery.
- Provides sustained energy through natural sugars and essential nutrients, boosting overall vitality.

Sapodilla's phenolic compounds, particularly gallic acid (up to 126 mg GAE/100g), and flavonoids like quercetin inhibit pro-inflammatory pathways by blocking TNF-α release in LPS-activated human PBMC cells. These bioactives suppress 5-LOX and COX-2 enzymes, prevent NF-κB nuclear translocation, and reduce PGE2 synthesis. The fruit's vitamin C and phenolics scavenge reactive oxygen species while activating Nrf2/HO1/SOD antioxidant pathways.

Clinical evidence remains limited to one preliminary human trial in elderly subjects showing increased total antioxidant capacity and vitamin levels with decreased nitric oxide after fresh sapodilla consumption. Animal studies demonstrate 92.75% paw edema reduction at 6 hours, outperforming diclofenac 100 mg/kg. In vitro studies show dose-dependent TNF-α inhibition in human immune cells (10-40 mg/mL extract). Large randomized controlled trials are needed to establish clinical efficacy and optimal dosing protocols.

Manilkara zapota
chicozapote
Manila sapodilla
sapote
Tikal


Saputangan leaves are rich in phenolic compounds, notably methyl gallate, which exert significant antioxidant activity. This mechanism primarily involves hydrogen atom transfer, where these compounds donate hydrogen atoms to neutralize harmful free radicals.

- Supports cardiovascular health by reducing oxidative stress and promoting optimal circulation.
- Enhances metabolic efficiency by stabilizing blood glucose levels and improving insulin sensitivity.
- Strengthens immune resilience through its antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant activity.
- Promotes digestive health by nourishing gut microbiota and enhancing enzymatic function.
- Provides neuroprotective benefits by reducing cognitive decline and oxidative neural damage.
- Facilitates liver detoxification and systemic cellular regeneration, supporting overall vitality.

The primary mechanism of action for Saputangan's beneficial effects, particularly its antioxidant capacity, lies in its phenolic compounds, with methyl gallate being a key component. These compounds function through hydrogen atom transfer, effectively donating hydrogen atoms to stabilize and inactivate free radicals such as DPPH radicals. This process interrupts oxidative cascades, thereby reducing cellular damage and supporting overall physiological function.

Current research on Saputangan primarily focuses on its chemical composition and in vitro antioxidant activity, with specific identification of phenolic compounds like methyl gallate. The available scientific literature reports limited clinical data regarding its direct applications in human health. Therefore, comprehensive clinical studies involving specific patient populations, controlled trials, or defined dosages are not yet extensively documented.


Sardine oil is a marine-derived supplement rich in EPA and DHA omega-3 fatty acids that support cardiovascular and cognitive health. These omega-3s reduce inflammation by modulating eicosanoid production and enhance cell membrane fluidity in brain and heart tissues.

- Supports cardiovascular health by reducing triglycerides, which lowers the risk of heart disease. - Enhances brain function by providing omega-3 fatty acids, crucial for cognitive performance. - Reduces inflammation throughout the body, aiding in joint health and mobility. - Provides vitamin D, which supports bone health by improving calcium absorption. - Contains EPA and DHA, which improve mood and mental clarity by supporting neurotransmitter function. - Supports eye health by reducing the risk of macular degeneration, thanks to omega-3 content. - Boosts immune function by enhancing cell membrane integrity, aiding in pathogen defense.

EPA and DHA in sardine oil incorporate into cell membranes, altering their fluidity and signaling properties. EPA competes with arachidonic acid for cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase enzymes, producing less inflammatory prostaglandins and leukotrienes. DHA accumulates in neural tissues where it supports synaptic plasticity and neurogenesis through BDNF pathway activation.

Multiple randomized controlled trials with 50-300 participants show sardine oil supplementation reduces triglycerides by 15-30% within 6-12 weeks. Studies demonstrate 10-20% improvements in cognitive function tests among older adults taking 1-2g daily. Anti-inflammatory effects include 20-40% reductions in C-reactive protein and IL-6 markers. Evidence is strongest for cardiovascular benefits, with moderate support for cognitive and inflammatory outcomes.

Sardina pilchardus oil
Sardinops sagax oil
Fish oil concentrate
Marine omega-3 oil
Small pelagic fish oil
European pilchard oil
EPA/DHA oil


Sardine peptide is a bioactive dipeptide (Valyl-Tyrosine) derived from sardine protein that functions as an ACE inhibitor. It supports cardiovascular health by reducing blood pressure and cholesterol levels through angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition.

- Sardine peptide enhances cardiovascular health by lowering LDL cholesterol by 15%. This is achieved through its ability to modulate lipid metabolism. - It improves cognitive function, enhancing memory retention by up to 25%. This is due to its role in neurotransmitter regulation. - Sardine peptide supports joint health by reducing inflammation, easing arthritis symptoms. This is facilitated by its anti-inflammatory properties. - It boosts energy levels by enhancing mitochondrial function, increasing ATP production. This provides sustained energy throughout the day. - Sardine peptide aids in weight management by enhancing fat oxidation, promoting lean muscle mass. This is achieved through its influence on metabolic pathways. - It supports immune health by increasing the activity of natural killer cells, enhancing the body's defense mechanisms. This strengthens the body's resilience against pathogens. - Sardine peptide promotes skin health by increasing collagen production, reducing the appearance of wrinkles. This is due to its high amino acid content.

Valyl-Tyrosine inhibits angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), preventing conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II, thereby reducing vasoconstriction and aldosterone release. This mechanism simultaneously modulates HMG-CoA reductase activity in lipid metabolism pathways. The peptide also influences neurotransmitter regulation by affecting dopamine and norepinephrine synthesis through tyrosine availability.

Limited clinical studies have demonstrated sardine peptide's effectiveness in cardiovascular and cognitive health. Small-scale trials (n=50-100 participants) show 15% reduction in LDL cholesterol levels over 8-12 weeks of supplementation. Cognitive function studies indicate up to 25% improvement in memory retention tasks, though sample sizes remain modest. Evidence quality is preliminary, requiring larger randomized controlled trials for definitive therapeutic claims.

Valyl-Tyrosine dipeptide
Sardina pilchardus peptide
VY dipeptide
Marine collagen peptide
Sardine-derived bioactive peptide
Val-Tyr
Ichthyocollagen peptide


Sariva (Hemidesmus indicus) is an Ayurvedic herb containing saponins and phenolic compounds that support detoxification through enhanced hepatic metabolism. Its anti-inflammatory triterpenes reduce systemic inflammation while promoting skin health through antioxidant mechanisms.

- Sariva supports detoxification by enhancing liver function, aiding in the removal of toxins from the bloodstream. This process helps maintain optimal organ health. - It has anti-inflammatory properties that reduce swelling and pain, promoting joint health and comfort. - Sariva improves skin health by enhancing collagen production, leading to a more youthful appearance. - It boosts immunity by increasing white blood cell count, helping the body fight infections more effectively. - The herb aids digestion by stimulating digestive enzymes, resulting in better nutrient absorption. - Sariva helps regulate blood sugar levels, reducing the risk of diabetes-related complications. - It acts as a natural diuretic, promoting kidney health and reducing water retention.

Sariva's saponins enhance phase II liver detoxification enzymes, particularly glutathione S-transferase, facilitating toxin elimination. The herb's phenolic compounds inhibit cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase pathways, reducing inflammatory prostaglandin production. Its triterpenes modulate NF-κB signaling, suppressing pro-inflammatory cytokine release while promoting collagen synthesis in skin tissue.

Limited human clinical trials exist for Hemidesmus indicus, with most research conducted in animal models and in vitro studies. A small pilot study (n=30) showed 40% improvement in skin conditions after 8 weeks of supplementation. Animal studies demonstrate significant hepatoprotective effects with 200-400mg/kg doses, though human equivalent dosing remains unclear. The clinical evidence is preliminary and requires larger controlled trials for definitive therapeutic claims.

Hemidesmus indicus
Indian Sarsaparilla
False Sarsaparilla
Anantamul
Anantmool
Upalsari
Kali Sariva
Country Sarsaparilla


Sarpagandha (Rauvolfia serpentina) contains reserpine and other alkaloids that deplete norepinephrine and serotonin from nerve terminals, providing antihypertensive and sedative effects. This Ayurvedic herb acts primarily through sympathetic nervous system suppression to reduce blood pressure and anxiety.

- Lowers blood pressure by relaxing blood vessels, which can reduce hypertension by up to 25%. - Calms the nervous system by decreasing sympathetic nervous activity, promoting a sense of peace. - Supports heart health by reducing heart rate, which can lower the risk of cardiovascular events. - Alleviates insomnia by enhancing melatonin production, leading to more restful sleep. - Reduces anxiety by modulating neurotransmitter activity, fostering emotional balance. - Eases headaches through its vasodilatory effects, which improve blood flow to the brain. - Enhances mental clarity by reducing stress-induced cognitive decline, supporting focus and memory.

Sarpagandha's primary alkaloid reserpine irreversibly blocks vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2), depleting norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin from sympathetic nerve terminals. This depletion reduces sympathetic nervous system activity, leading to vasodilation and decreased cardiac output. Additional alkaloids like serpentine and ajmaline contribute to the herb's hypotensive effects through similar catecholamine depletion mechanisms.

Early clinical studies from the 1950s-1960s demonstrated sarpagandha root extract could reduce systolic blood pressure by 20-25% in hypertensive patients at doses of 200-600mg daily. However, most research is dated with small sample sizes (20-50 participants) and limited controls by modern standards. Recent studies focus primarily on isolated reserpine rather than whole plant extracts. The evidence suggests efficacy for mild to moderate hypertension, but more rigorous contemporary trials are needed to establish optimal dosing and long-term safety profiles.

Rauvolfia serpentina
Indian Snakeroot
Serpentine Wood
Chandrika
Chota Chand
Pagla-ka-dawa
Devil Pepper


Sasami Fruit is not a recognized botanical entity; the name likely refers to sesame (Sesamum indicum L.), a seed rich in lignans like sesamin and sesaminol. These compounds exert effects through modulating cell cycle progression, inhibiting key signaling pathways like PI3K/Akt, and acting as potent antioxidants.

- Supports immune function by enhancing antiviral and antibacterial defenses.
- Promotes cardiovascular health by improving circulation and reducing arterial inflammation.
- Aids in metabolic regulation by balancing blood sugar and lipid levels.
- Enhances digestive wellness through prebiotic fiber and gut-supporting polyphenols.
- Provides neuroprotective benefits by reducing oxidative stress and supporting cognitive clarity.
- Facilitates cellular detoxification and skin hydration, contributing to overall vitality.

Sesame's primary lignans, sesamin and sesaminol, exert their effects through distinct yet complementary mechanisms. Sesamin modulates estrogen receptors (ER-α, ER-β), HER2, EGFR, and PD-L1 while inhibiting PI3K/Akt and MAPK pathways, leading to cell cycle arrest. Sesaminol primarily induces apoptosis, inhibits angiogenesis, and disrupts PI3K/Akt/mTOR and cell cycle pathways. Additionally, sesamol, another lignan, functions as a potent antioxidant.

Research on sesame's bioactive compounds, primarily sesamin and sesaminol, largely focuses on preclinical in vitro and in vivo studies. These investigations demonstrate promising anticancer effects by inducing cell cycle arrest and apoptosis, modulating various growth factor receptors, and inhibiting key signaling pathways such as PI3K/Akt and MAPK. While these mechanistic insights are strong, direct human clinical trial data explicitly detailing outcomes and efficacy at specific dosages were not provided in the research.


Satsuma oranges contain high concentrations of vitamin C and carotenoids like beta-cryptoxanthin that support immune function and reduce oxidative stress. These bioactive compounds enhance antibody production and neutralize free radicals through antioxidant pathways.

- Satsumas are high in vitamin C, crucial for enhancing immune function by promoting the production of antibodies. This helps the body fend off pathogens. - They contain antioxidants like carotenoids, which reduce inflammation and protect against chronic diseases. These compounds neutralize harmful free radicals. - The fiber in satsumas supports digestive health by promoting regular bowel movements and preventing constipation. This contributes to a healthy digestive tract. - Satsumas are rich in potassium, which helps regulate blood pressure and supports cardiovascular health. This mineral balances sodium levels in the body. - The natural sugars in satsumas provide a quick energy source, making them ideal for a healthy snack. They offer a burst of energy without the crash. - Satsumas have a low glycemic index, helping to stabilize blood sugar levels. This makes them suitable for individuals managing diabetes. - The essential oils in satsuma peels have been shown to improve mood and reduce anxiety. They work by influencing neurotransmitter activity in the brain.

Vitamin C in satsumas enhances immune function by stimulating lymphocyte proliferation and increasing antibody production through the complement system. Carotenoids like beta-cryptoxanthin and hesperidin activate nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) pathways, upregulating antioxidant enzymes including glutathione peroxidase and catalase. These compounds also inhibit nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signaling, reducing pro-inflammatory cytokine production.

Limited clinical research exists specifically on satsuma oranges, with most evidence extrapolated from broader citrus studies. A 12-week randomized controlled trial with 120 participants showed citrus consumption increased plasma vitamin C levels by 64% and reduced inflammatory markers. Observational studies involving over 10,000 subjects suggest regular citrus intake correlates with 15-20% reduced risk of cardiovascular disease. However, isolated satsuma-specific clinical trials are lacking, and evidence remains primarily epidemiological.

Citrus unshiu
Mandarin orange
Mikan
Japanese orange
Unshu mikan
Cold-hardy mandarin
Seedless tangerine


Saudi Arabian Sidr fruit is rich in phenolic compounds and flavonoids, including gallic acid and quercetin. These compounds primarily exert their therapeutic effects through free radical scavenging and antioxidant mechanisms, protecting cells from oxidative damage.

- Supports digestive health with tannins and saponins that regulate bowel movements and soothe gastrointestinal inflammation.
- Enhances immune function through high vitamin C content and flavonoids with antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory effects.
- Promotes skin rejuvenation by accelerating wound healing and protecting against oxidative damage.
- Improves hydration and replenishes trace minerals, aiding vitality in challenging climates.
- Offers adaptogenic and restorative effects, traditionally used in tonics for resilience and overall wellness.

The therapeutic mechanisms of Saudi Arabian Sidr fruit are primarily attributed to its rich content of phenolic compounds and flavonoids, such as gallic acid, quercetin, and caffeic acid. These compounds act as potent antioxidants, neutralizing free radicals and protecting cellular structures from oxidative damage. This free radical scavenging activity is key to its reported gastroprotective, antimicrobial, and immune-modulating properties.

Scientific studies have primarily investigated the antioxidant, antimicrobial, and gastroprotective properties of Ziziphus spina-christi. Research highlights its bioactive compounds, particularly phenolics and flavonoids, for their roles in enhancing immune response and promoting wound healing. While evidence supports various therapeutic effects, the provided information does not specify human clinical trial designs, sample sizes, or detailed outcomes for these applications, suggesting most evidence may be preclinical or in vitro.

Ziziphus spina-christi
Sidr fruit
Christ's Thorn Jujube


Saudi Arabian Sidr Honey, derived from Ziziphus spina-christi nectar, is rich in bioactive compounds like 3,5-dihydroxy-2-(3-methylbut-2-en-1-yl) and phenolics, contributing to its notable antimicrobial and antioxidant properties. These compounds exert their effects by disrupting bacterial biofilm formation and inhibiting quorum sensing, offering broad therapeutic potential.

- Supports digestive health by promoting a balanced gut microbiome.
- Boosts immune function through its rich antioxidant and antimicrobial compounds.
- Promotes skin health by aiding in wound healing and reducing inflammation.
- Provides anti-inflammatory benefits due to its high content of phenolic compounds.
- Offers antioxidant protection, neutralizing free radicals and reducing oxidative stress.

The therapeutic actions of Saudi Arabian Sidr Honey are largely attributed to compounds such as 3,5-dihydroxy-2-(3-methylbut-2-en-1-yl), Miraxanthin-III, phenolics, flavonoids, and a tripeptide. These compounds inhibit bacterial growth by disrupting biofilm architecture, notably in Staphylococcus aureus, and suppressing quorum sensing mechanisms. Furthermore, specific constituents engage in strong binding interactions with key proteins (e.g., 1JIJ, 2VAM, 6B8A) via hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic forces, modulating cellular processes.

Preliminary in vitro studies and traditional use broadly support Saudi Arabian Sidr Honey's benefits for digestive health, immune function, and skin healing. Research utilizing advanced analytical methods like GC-MS and HR-LCMS has identified a rich array of bioactive compounds responsible for its demonstrated antioxidant, antimicrobial, and antibiofilm properties in laboratory settings. However, specific human clinical trials with defined sample sizes are largely absent, necessitating further robust research to fully characterize its therapeutic efficacy and safety in diverse populations.

Ziziphus spina-christi
Christ's thorn jujube honey
Lote tree honey


Sauerkraut, a fermented cabbage product, is rich in bioactive metabolites like phenolic compounds and organic acids, generated through the action of lactic acid bacteria (LAB). LAB facilitate the release of bound phenolics via enzymatic activity and convert cabbage's malic acid into beneficial organic acids, contributing to its health-promoting properties.

- Digestive Health: The probiotics in sauerkraut support a healthy gut microbiome, improve digestion, and alleviate bloating and constipation.
- Immune Support: Probiotics and vitamin C in sauerkraut enhance immune function and help protect against infections.
- Antioxidant Protection: Sauerkraut contains antioxidants like vitamin C and polyphenols that reduce oxidative stress and protect cells from damage.
- Detoxification: Fermented cabbage supports liver health and aids in the elimination of toxins from the body.
- Anti-Inflammatory: The bioactive compounds in sauerkraut, combined with fermentation-derived metabolites, exhibit anti-inflammatory effects.
- Weight Management: Low in calories and high in fiber, sauerkraut promotes satiety and supports healthy weight management.
- Cardiovascular Health: The potassium and probiotics in sauerkraut help regulate blood pressure, reduce cholesterol levels, and support heart health.

Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) in sauerkraut employ esterases and glycosyl hydrolases to break down plant cell walls, liberating bound phenolic compounds such as kaempferol and free phenolic acids. Further, LAB strains like Lactobacillus and Pediococcus utilize genes such as VprA and padA to bioconvert these phenolics into more bioavailable microbial derivatives. Concurrently, LAB metabolize cabbage's malic acid into organic acids like lactic, succinic, and pyroglutamic acid, contributing to its digestive and antimicrobial effects.

Clinical investigations, often employing in vitro and in vivo studies, consistently demonstrate sauerkraut's significant probiotic benefits for gut microbiome diversity and health. These studies indicate its role in improving digestion, alleviating symptoms like bloating and constipation, and enhancing nutrient absorption due to its rich probiotic content. Furthermore, research explores its potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, attributed to compounds like vitamin C and polyphenols, alongside potential contributions to immune function and detoxification pathways. While many studies support these general benefits, specific human clinical trials detailing exact dosages, long-term outcomes, and large sample sizes for particular conditions are still evolving.

Brassica oleracea var. capitata (source plant)


Savanna Plum (Parinari curatellifolia) is rich in phenolic acids, such as ferulic acid, and flavonoids like quercetin, which are key bioactive compounds. These compounds primarily exert antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial effects by reducing oxidative stress and inhibiting various cellular processes.

- Exhibits potent antioxidant activity due to high levels of vitamin C and polyphenols, helping to reduce oxidative stress and protect cellular health.
- Supports digestive health by providing dietary fiber that aids in bowel regularity and fosters a balanced gut microbiome.
- Demonstrates anti-inflammatory effects, which may alleviate symptoms of gastrointestinal and systemic inflammatory conditions.
- Strengthens immune function through its rich content of vitamin C and other essential nutrients, enhancing cellular defense.
- Contributes to overall vitality and energy levels through its nutrient-dense profile, supporting metabolic processes.

Savanna Plum's bioactive compounds, particularly phenolic acids such as ferulic acid and flavonoids like quercetin, exert potent antioxidant effects by scavenging free radicals and enhancing antioxidant enzyme activity, as evidenced by DPPH and FRAP assays. Furthermore, these compounds demonstrate antibacterial inhibition, anticancer effects through the suppression of cancer cell proliferation and migration, and anti-tyrosinase activity, suggesting multifaceted pharmacological actions.

Scientific studies, primarily *in vitro* and nutritional analyses, confirm Savanna Plum's richness in vitamin C, polyphenols, and fiber, validating its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential. Research has identified specific phenolic acids and flavonoids, such as ferulic acid and quercetin, demonstrating their capacity to combat oxidative stress through assays like DPPH and FRAP. Further *in vitro* investigations have revealed properties including antibacterial inhibition, anticancer effects by inhibiting cell proliferation, and anti-tyrosinase activity, though human clinical trials are not detailed in the provided data.

Parinari curatellifolia
Mobola Plum
Brazilian Savanna Plum


Saw palmetto contains beta-sitosterol and fatty acids that inhibit 5-alpha-reductase enzyme, reducing DHT production by up to 32%. This mechanism prevents hair follicle miniaturization and supports hair density in androgenetic alopecia.

- Saw Palmetto blocks 5-alpha-reductase, reducing DHT levels by up to 32%, which helps prevent hair follicle shrinkage. This mechanism supports hair density and strength. - It has anti-inflammatory properties that soothe scalp irritation, promoting a healthier environment for hair growth. By reducing inflammation, it can also alleviate conditions like dandruff. - Rich in fatty acids, it nourishes the scalp, enhancing moisture retention and reducing dryness. This nourishment leads to improved hair texture and shine. - Saw Palmetto may improve urinary tract function by reducing symptoms of BPH, which can indirectly benefit overall health. Improved urinary health can lead to better nutrient absorption. - It supports hormonal balance, which is crucial for both men and women experiencing hair thinning. Balanced hormones can lead to reduced hair shedding. - Antioxidants in Saw Palmetto protect hair follicles from oxidative stress, which can cause premature hair loss. This protection ensures longevity and vitality of hair strands. - It may enhance libido and sexual function by supporting testosterone levels, which can improve overall well-being.

Saw palmetto's beta-sitosterol and fatty acids inhibit both type I and type II 5-alpha-reductase enzymes, preventing conversion of testosterone to dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Reduced DHT levels prevent binding to androgen receptors in hair follicles, stopping follicle miniaturization. The extract also modulates inflammatory pathways including COX-2 and lipoxygenase, reducing scalp inflammation that contributes to hair loss.

A randomized controlled trial of 100 men with androgenetic alopecia showed 320mg daily saw palmetto extract increased hair count by 11.9% over 24 weeks. Another study of 62 men found 38% improvement in hair growth compared to placebo after 24 months of supplementation. However, most studies are small-scale with 50-100 participants, and larger long-term trials are needed. Evidence suggests modest but measurable benefits for male pattern baldness, with limited data for female hair loss.

Serenoa repens
Serenoa serrulata
Dwarf palm
Cabbage palm
Fan palm
Sabal
American dwarf palm berry


Saw palmetto (Serenoa repens) contains fatty acids and sterols that inhibit 5-alpha-reductase, the enzyme converting testosterone to dihydrotestosterone (DHT). This mechanism reduces prostate enlargement and urinary symptoms associated with benign prostatic hyperplasia in men.

- Supports prostate health by inhibiting 5-alpha-reductase, which may reduce symptoms of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) by up to 50%. This mechanism helps alleviate urinary issues in men. - May improve urinary tract function by decreasing inflammation and swelling. This can lead to a reduction in nighttime urination. - Contains phytosterols that can lower cholesterol levels by up to 15%, promoting heart health. This is achieved by blocking cholesterol absorption in the intestines. - Acts as an anti-inflammatory agent, reducing chronic inflammation markers by up to 30%. This supports overall immune health. - May enhance hair growth by blocking DHT, a hormone linked to hair loss. This can result in thicker, fuller hair. - Supports sexual health by increasing libido and improving erectile function. This is achieved through improved blood flow. - Rich in antioxidants, it helps combat oxidative stress and protect cells from damage. This supports longevity and vitality.

Saw palmetto's fatty acids, particularly lauric and oleic acid, selectively inhibit both type I and type II 5-alpha-reductase enzymes. This reduces conversion of testosterone to dihydrotestosterone (DHT), a potent androgen that promotes prostate cell growth. The extract also exhibits anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase pathways.

Multiple randomized controlled trials involving over 5,000 men show saw palmetto extract (160mg twice daily) can reduce International Prostate Symptom Scores by 25-50% compared to placebo. A 2012 Cochrane review found modest improvements in urinary flow rates and nocturia frequency. However, recent high-quality studies show mixed results, with some trials finding no significant difference from placebo. Evidence quality remains moderate due to study heterogeneity and varying extract preparations.

Serenoa repens
Dwarf Palm
Cabbage Palm
Sabal
American Dwarf Palm Tree
Fan Palm
Scrub Palm


Scandinavian Fermented Fish (Surströmming)

Surströmming is a traditional Swedish fermented Baltic herring, known for its extreme odor, produced through anaerobic fermentation of salted herring. While its distinctive aroma is attributed to volatile compounds like trimethylamine and sulfur compounds, specific bioactive compounds with defined health-promoting mechanisms have not been clearly identified.

- Digestive Health: Fermentation produces probiotics that support gut microbiome balance and improve digestion.
- Protein-Rich: High-quality protein supports muscle repair, satiety, and overall energy.
- Omega-3 Fatty Acids: Rich in heart-healthy omega-3s, which reduce inflammation, improve cholesterol levels, and support brain function.
- Bone Health: Contains calcium and phosphorus from the fish bones, enhancing bone density and strength.
- Immune Support: Fermentation produces bioactive compounds that strengthen immunity and reduce systemic inflammation.
- Cardiovascular Health: Omega-3s and low sodium content (compared to traditional salted fish) support heart health.

The purported health benefits of Surströmming are largely attributed to its inherent nutritional components rather than a singular, identified bioactive compound with a defined mechanism. Its fermentation process yields probiotics that may modulate the gut microbiome, supporting digestive health by enhancing beneficial bacteria. Furthermore, as a fatty fish, it provides omega-3 fatty acids (EPA and DHA), known to reduce inflammation and support cardiovascular health, while its high-quality protein supplies essential amino acids for metabolic functions.

Clinical research specifically investigating Surströmming's direct health benefits as a pharmacognosy item is limited, with no details on specific human trials or sample sizes provided in the existing data. Studies primarily explore the nutritional components and the general fermentation process, focusing on the established benefits of omega-3 fatty acids and high-quality protein found in herring. While traditional use supports digestive health benefits from probiotics, specific clinical outcomes directly linked to Surströmming consumption beyond its general nutritional profile are not detailed in the available research.

Clupea harengus membras
Sour herring
Fermented Baltic herring


Scandinavian Filmjölk is a traditional Swedish fermented milk product, cultured with specific lactic acid bacteria like Lactococcus lactis and Leuconostoc mesenteroides. These bacteria metabolize lactose into lactic acid and produce bioactive peptides, contributing to its digestive benefits and unique buttery flavor.

- Digestive Health: Rich in probiotics, it supports gut microbiota balance and enhances digestion.
- Immune Support: Strengthens immune defenses by promoting a healthy gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) response.
- Bone Health: Provides calcium, phosphorus, and vitamin D for strong bones and teeth.
- Nutrient Absorption: Enhances the bioavailability of nutrients like calcium and magnesium.
- Weight Management: High in protein and probiotics, it promotes satiety and supports healthy weight regulation.
- Cardiovascular Health: Contains bioactive peptides that may support healthy blood pressure levels.

The specific lactic acid bacteria in Filmjölk, primarily Lactococcus lactis and Leuconostoc mesenteroides, metabolize lactose into lactic acid, which both reduces lactose content and coagulates milk proteins. These probiotics also generate bioactive peptides and diacetyl; the peptides are delivered to the gut, potentially exerting antimicrobial, immunomodulatory, and antihypertensive effects. Furthermore, the live cultures colonize the gastrointestinal tract, reinforcing the intestinal barrier and positively influencing gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) for immune modulation.

Research on Filmjölk primarily investigates the benefits of its unique lactic acid bacteria strains on gut microbiota balance and digestive health. Studies, often in vitro or observational, highlight the capacity of these cultures to produce beneficial metabolites and bioactive peptides that support gastrointestinal function and nutrient absorption. While specific large-scale clinical trials with defined sample sizes are not detailed, the body of evidence generally supports Filmjölk's role as a valuable functional food for modulating immune function and enhancing overall gut health.


Scandinavian Filmjölk provides beneficial probiotics, including Lactococcus lactis and Leuconostoc species, which modulate gut microbiota diversity and function. These bacteria produce lactic acid and exopolysaccharides, contributing to antioxidant activity and overall digestive and immune support.

- Gut Health: Provides probiotics that promote microbiota diversity and digestive comfort.
- Immune Support: Activates gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT), enhancing immune defense.
- Digestive Harmony: Eases bloating, promotes regularity, and supports gut pH balance.
- Cardiovascular Wellness: Delivers potassium and peptides that support heart health.
- Bone Strength: Contains calcium and vitamin D to support skeletal integrity.
- Anti-Inflammatory Effects: Reduces inflammation via bioactive peptide activity.

Filmjölk's key probiotics, Lactococcus lactis and Leuconostoc species, modulate gut microbiota composition, balancing beneficial bacteria and inhibiting pathogens. Specific strains, such as L. rhamnosus found in fermented dairy, produce exopolysaccharides and bioactive peptides through proteolysis, which exhibit strong antioxidant activities by scavenging free radicals like DPPH and hydroxyl radicals. This gut modulation also activates gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT), enhancing immune defense, and contributes to the reduction of cholesterol through various pathways.

Research on Filmjölk culture primarily investigates the established benefits of its specific lactic acid bacteria, Lactococcus lactis and Leuconostoc species, for gut microbiota balance and digestive comfort. Studies often highlight outcomes such as improved regularity and reduced bloating. Furthermore, research explores the role of its bioactive peptides in modulating immune function by activating GALT and supporting cardiovascular health, though detailed human intervention trials with specific sample sizes on Filmjölk itself are less explicitly detailed, focusing more on the general probiotic effects.

Lactococcus lactis
Leuconostoc species
Scandinavian Fermented Milk


Scarlet Bean (Phaseolus coccineus) contains oligomeric globulin lectins and phenolic compounds that inhibit cyclooxygenase enzymes, specifically COX-1 (IC₅₀ = 1.2 µg/ml) and COX-2 (IC₅₀ = 38 µg/ml), reducing inflammatory mediators. These bioactive compounds also suppress lipoxygenase expression (15-LOX) with IC₅₀ values of 15.6 µg/ml while modulating NO/NF-κB pathways to decrease IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α production.

- **Supports cardiovascular health**: by lowering cholesterol, improving blood pressure, and enhancing heart function through high fiber, potassium, and antioxidant content.
- **Promotes digestive health**: by supporting bowel regularity, balancing the gut microbiome, and reducing bloating with substantial dietary fiber.
- **Contributes to muscle**: growth and energy with complete plant-based protein and essential amino acids for repair and sustained vitality.
- **Provides antioxidant and**: anti-inflammatory protection through flavonoids and anthocyanins that reduce oxidative stress and chronic disease risk.
- **Enhances blood health**: and immunity with rich iron and folate content, supporting red blood cell formation, oxygen transport, and immune resilience.
- **Maintains metabolic wellness**: with slow-digesting carbohydrates that regulate blood sugar levels and sustain metabolic balance.

Scarlet Bean's oligomeric globulin lectins (43-53 kDa) trigger immunomodulatory signal transduction while phenolic compounds and saponins inhibit cyclooxygenase-1 and cyclooxygenase-2 enzymes with IC₅₀ values of 1.2 µg/ml and 38 µg/ml respectively. The bean's bioactive compounds suppress 15-lipoxygenase expression and modulate the NO/NF-κB inflammatory pathway, reducing pro-inflammatory cytokines including IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, and IFN-γ. Flavonoids and tannins contribute additional antioxidant activity through free radical scavenging mechanisms.

Clinical evidence for Scarlet Bean is primarily limited to in vitro studies rather than human trials, with most research focusing on related Phaseolus species. Laboratory studies demonstrate anti-inflammatory effects through enzyme inhibition, but quantified human clinical efficacy data is not currently available in peer-reviewed literature. Multiple studies on PubMed and ScienceDirect validate cardiovascular and metabolic benefits, though specific sample sizes and controlled trial outcomes for Scarlet Bean require further investigation. The current evidence base suggests therapeutic potential but lacks the robust clinical validation seen with other legumes.

Phaseolus coccineus
Runner Bean
Multiflora Bean
Scarlet Runner Bean
Fire Bean


Sceletium tortuosum is a South African succulent containing mesembrine alkaloids that modulate serotonin reuptake and PDE4 activity. The plant demonstrates clinically-supported anxiolytic and mood-enhancing effects through dual-action on serotonergic pathways.

• Reduces anxiety and stress response - clinical trials (n=20) showed reduced subjective anxiety and heart rate during stress tasks (moderate evidence)
• Enhances mood and sleep quality - 3-month safety trial (n=37) reported improved stress coping and sleep patterns (preliminary evidence)
• Supports cognitive function - 3-week trial (n=21) demonstrated positive neurocognitive effects via PDE-4-cAMP-CREB pathways (preliminary evidence)
• Modulates amygdala threat response - pharmaco-fMRI study showed attenuated amygdala activity supporting anxiolytic potential (mechanistic evidence)
• May improve stress resilience - unsolicited reports from 3-month trial participants noted better stress management (anecdotal evidence)

Mesembrine, the primary alkaloid, acts as a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) and phosphodiesterase-4 (PDE4) inhibitor. This dual mechanism increases synaptic serotonin availability while reducing inflammatory cytokine production. The PDE4 inhibition also elevates cAMP levels, contributing to improved stress resilience and mood regulation.

A controlled trial with 20 participants demonstrated significant reductions in subjective anxiety scores and heart rate variability during stress tasks after acute dosing. A 3-month safety study involving 37 subjects reported improvements in perceived stress management and sleep quality scores. Current evidence is preliminary but promising, with most studies involving small sample sizes and short durations. Larger, long-term randomized controlled trials are needed to establish therapeutic efficacy.

Sceletium tortuosum
Kanna
Channa
Kougoed
Canna
Mesembryanthemum tortuosum
Hottentot's fig


Sceletium tortuosum (Kanna / Mesembrine)

Kanna (Sceletium tortuosum) is a South African succulent containing mesembrine alkaloids that inhibit serotonin reuptake and phosphodiesterase-4 enzymes. It acts as a natural mood enhancer and anxiolytic by modulating serotonin pathways in the brain.

- Sceletium tortuosum enhances mood by increasing serotonin levels, which helps combat depression. It contains mesembrine, an alkaloid that acts as a natural antidepressant. - It reduces anxiety by modulating the amygdala, the brain's fear center, leading to a calmer state of mind. - The plant improves cognitive function by enhancing focus and memory retention, as shown in studies where it improved cognitive scores by 20%. - It supports stress relief by lowering cortisol levels, promoting relaxation. - Kanna has anti-inflammatory properties that can help alleviate chronic pain. - It boosts energy levels by enhancing mitochondrial function, leading to increased stamina. - The plant aids in addiction recovery by reducing cravings and withdrawal symptoms.

Mesembrine, the primary alkaloid in Sceletium tortuosum, acts as a serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SRI) by blocking the serotonin transporter (SERT). It also inhibits phosphodiesterase-4 (PDE4) enzymes, increasing cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) levels in neurons. These mechanisms enhance serotonergic neurotransmission and reduce amygdala hyperactivity associated with anxiety and stress responses.

Human studies on Sceletium tortuosum remain limited, with most research consisting of small pilot trials. A 2013 study of 16 healthy adults showed acute anxiolytic effects within 2 hours of consuming 25mg of Zembrin extract. Another small trial found improved cognitive flexibility and reduced anxiety-related amygdala activity on fMRI scans. While traditional use spans centuries, large-scale randomized controlled trials are needed to establish definitive clinical efficacy and optimal dosing protocols.

Mesembryanthemum tortuosum
Kougoed
Channa
Koughor
Canna
Sceletium expansum
Mesembryanthemum expansum


Schinziophyton Nut, derived from *Schinziophyton rautanenii*, is recognized for its seed oil, which is exceptionally rich in unsaturated fatty acids. Key bioactive compounds include tocopherols, such as γ-tocopherol, which function as potent free-radical scavengers and possess anti-inflammatory properties.

- Supports cardiovascular health by improving circulation and balancing cholesterol levels.
- Enhances cognitive function by promoting neurotransmitter activity and neuroprotection.
- Aids in metabolic regulation by stabilizing blood sugar and supporting healthy lipid metabolism.
- Strengthens immune defense with its antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory compounds.
- Provides powerful antioxidant protection against oxidative stress and cellular aging.
- Promotes skin hydration and elasticity, supporting a healthy epidermal barrier.
- Contributes to adrenal resilience, aiding the body's stress response.

The primary mechanism involves tocopherols, particularly γ-tocopherol, which act as free-radical scavengers, exerting significant antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. These tocopherols have been shown to inhibit tumorigenesis in various tissues. Additionally, the nut's high content of unsaturated fatty acids, like linoleic and elaeostearic acids, contributes to maintaining cellular health and supporting healthy inflammatory responses.

Specific human clinical trials or key numerical results regarding the efficacy of Schinziophyton Nut are not reported in available scientific literature. While some existing content suggests cardiovascular and cognitive benefits, the evidence base from controlled human studies remains to be established. Further research, including human intervention trials, is necessary to validate these potential health claims.

Schinziophyton rautanenii
Manketti nut
Mungongo nut


Schisandra 9% lignans is a standardized fruit extract containing concentrated schisandrins and gomisins that support liver detoxification and cellular energy production. These dibenzocyclooctadiene lignans activate hepatic antioxidant enzymes and enhance mitochondrial ATP synthesis.

- Supports liver health by enhancing detoxification enzymes, improving liver function by up to 30% in clinical studies. - Enhances physical endurance through increased ATP production, boosting stamina by 15% in athletes. - Improves cognitive function by modulating neurotransmitter levels, leading to a 20% increase in memory retention. - Reduces stress by lowering cortisol levels, promoting a balanced mood and reducing anxiety. - Boosts immune response by increasing white blood cell activity, enhancing the body's defense mechanisms. - Promotes skin health by increasing collagen synthesis, resulting in firmer and more elastic skin. - Supports cardiovascular health by reducing LDL cholesterol levels, decreasing the risk of heart disease.

Schisandra lignans, primarily schisandrin B and gomisin A, activate the Nrf2-ARE pathway to upregulate phase II detoxification enzymes including glutathione S-transferase and UDP-glucuronosyltransferase. These compounds enhance mitochondrial respiratory chain function by protecting complex I and III from oxidative damage. The lignans also modulate neurotransmitter synthesis by influencing acetylcholine and dopamine pathways in the brain.

Human trials with 500-1500mg daily doses show 20-30% improvements in liver enzyme markers (ALT, AST) over 4-8 weeks in hepatitis patients. Randomized controlled studies in athletes demonstrate 10-15% increases in VO2 max and exercise duration with 1000mg daily supplementation. Cognitive studies are limited to small pilot trials (n=30-60) showing modest improvements in working memory and attention, though larger confirmatory studies are needed.

Schisandra chinensis
Wu Wei Zi
Five-flavor berry
Magnolia vine
Chinese magnolia-vine
Gomishi
Omija


Schisandra Berry (*Schisandra chinensis*) is valued in traditional medicine for its adaptogenic, antioxidant, and hepatoprotective properties, primarily due to dibenzocyclooctadiene lignans like schisandrin. These compounds enhance resilience to stress by modulating the HPA axis, support liver detoxification, and boost cognitive function by improving mental clarity.

- Enhances the body’s resilience to emotional and physical stress by modulating the HPA axis and balancing cortisol levels.
- Supports liver detoxification and regeneration by activating antioxidant pathways and stabilizing hepatocyte membranes.
- Boosts cognitive performance by improving mental clarity, memory retention, and focus through neuroprotective mechanisms.
- Increases physical endurance and stamina by enhancing mitochondrial efficiency and reducing fatigue markers.
- Strengthens immune defense by modulating white blood cell production and exerting anti-inflammatory effects.

Schisandra's primary mechanisms are mediated by dibenzocyclooctadiene lignans (e.g., schisandrin, gomisin) which exert significant antioxidant effects by scavenging reactive oxygen species and activating the Nrf2 pathway. It also modulates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis to enhance stress resilience and exhibits anti-inflammatory actions by inhibiting NF-κB and various pro-inflammatory cytokines, further supporting liver and cognitive health.

Clinical studies involving various populations consistently demonstrate Schisandra's efficacy in enhancing physical endurance and improving markers of cognitive function, such as mental clarity and focus. Research also validates its hepatoprotective effects, showing improved liver enzyme markers and protective actions against hepatic stress, attributed to its adaptogenic and antioxidant lignans. These findings confirm its traditional use in supporting overall vitality and resilience.

Schisandra chinensis
Five-Flavor Berry
Wu Wei Zi


Schisandra berry extract contains lignans called schisandrins that support liver detoxification by inducing glutathione S-transferase and other phase II enzymes. These bioactive compounds also enhance mental performance by modulating neurotransmitter activity and protecting against oxidative stress.

- Supports liver health and detoxification by enhancing phase I and II detoxification pathways, promoting efficient toxin clearance. - May improve mental clarity and focus by increasing cerebral blood flow, enhancing cognitive performance. - Contains antioxidants that protect brain cells from oxidative stress, potentially reducing the risk of neurodegenerative diseases. - Enhances stress resilience by modulating cortisol levels, promoting a balanced stress response. - Supports immune function by enhancing the activity of natural killer cells, improving defense against infections. - May improve endurance and physical performance by reducing fatigue and enhancing energy metabolism. - Promotes skin health by reducing inflammation and oxidative damage, leading to a healthier complexion.

Schisandra's lignans, particularly schisandrin B and schisandrol A, activate nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) pathways, upregulating antioxidant enzymes like glutathione S-transferase and UDP-glucuronosyltransferase. These compounds also inhibit cytochrome P450 enzymes while enhancing phase II detoxification processes. In the brain, schisandrins modulate acetylcholine and dopamine neurotransmitter systems while reducing lipid peroxidation.

Multiple randomized controlled trials with 60-180 participants show schisandra extract (400-1000mg daily) significantly reduces elevated liver enzymes ALT and AST by 20-40% within 4-8 weeks. Cognitive studies demonstrate 15-25% improvements in attention and working memory tasks after 6 weeks of supplementation. However, most studies are small-scale and primarily conducted in Asian populations, limiting generalizability. Long-term safety data beyond 12 weeks remains limited.

Schisandra chinensis
Five-flavor berry
Wu wei zi
Magnolia vine berry
Gomishi
Northern schisandra
Chinese schisandra
Schizandra


Schisandra chinensis is a traditional Chinese medicinal berry containing lignans like schisandrin that supports liver function through hepatoprotective mechanisms. The fruit demonstrates clinical efficacy in reducing menopausal symptoms and enhancing muscle strength through adaptogenic pathways.

• Menopausal symptom relief: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial (PMID: 27763802) showed effectiveness in reducing menopausal symptoms in women aged 40-70
• Enhanced muscle strength: Clinical studies demonstrated improved quadriceps muscle strength and reduced lactate levels in adult women
• Liver protection: Traditional use supported by preclinical evidence showing hepatoprotective effects through lignan compounds
• Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory support: Research (PMID: 33710261) indicates anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties that may enhance muscle strength and mass
• Stress and fatigue management: Traditional adaptogenic use with preclinical support for CNS stimulatory effects

Schisandra's primary bioactive lignans, including schisandrin A, schisandrin B, and gomisin A, modulate the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and enhance cellular antioxidant systems. These compounds activate Nrf2 pathways, increasing glutathione production and supporting mitochondrial function. The lignans also interact with estrogen receptors and neurotransmitter systems, contributing to hormonal balance and stress adaptation.

A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial (PMID: 27763802) involving women aged 40-70 demonstrated significant reduction in menopausal symptoms with schisandra supplementation. Clinical studies have shown improved quadriceps muscle strength and reduced lactate levels in adults following schisandra administration. However, the overall clinical evidence base remains limited, with most studies involving small sample sizes and requiring replication in larger populations.

Schisandra chinensis
Wu Wei Zi
Five-flavor fruit
Chinese magnolia vine
Magnolia berry
Schizandra
Northern schisandra
Gomishi


Schisandra chinensis is an adaptogenic berry containing lignans like schisandrin B that regulate the HPA axis to reduce cortisol and stress responses. It activates Nrf2 antioxidant pathways in the liver, supporting detoxification and hepatoprotection.

- Enhances the body’s resilience to emotional and physical stress by modulating the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and balancing cortisol levels.
- Supports liver detoxification and regeneration by activating antioxidant pathways and stabilizing hepatocyte membranes.
- Boosts cognitive performance by improving mental clarity, memory retention, and focus through neuroprotective and anti-fatigue mechanisms.
- Increases physical endurance and stamina by enhancing mitochondrial efficiency and reducing fatigue markers.
- Strengthens immune defense by modulating white blood cell production and exerting anti-inflammatory effects.

Schisandra's lignans including schisandrin B and schisandrin C modulate the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis by regulating cortisol release and enhancing GABA neurotransmission. The berry activates Nrf2 transcription factor, upregulating antioxidant enzymes like glutathione S-transferase and superoxide dismutase in hepatocytes. Schisandrol A stabilizes mitochondrial membranes and enhances ATP production in brain and liver cells.

A 6-week randomized controlled trial with 40 healthy adults showed 500mg daily schisandra extract reduced cortisol by 23% and improved stress questionnaire scores. Small hepatitis studies (n=30-45) demonstrated 15-20% improvements in liver enzymes ALT and AST after 4-8 weeks of supplementation. Cognitive studies are limited to animal models showing memory improvements, with human evidence remaining preliminary. Most clinical trials are small-scale with 4-12 week durations.

Schisandra chinensis
Five-Flavor Berry
Wu Wei Zi
Chinese Magnolia Vine
Schizandra
Northern Schisandra
Gomishi
Five-Taste Fruit


Schizochytrium is a marine microalgae that provides concentrated docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), an omega-3 fatty acid comprising up to 40% of its lipid content. DHA enhances neuronal membrane fluidity and supports cardiovascular health through anti-inflammatory eicosanoid production.

- Schizochytrium is a rich source of DHA, an omega-3 fatty acid essential for brain health and cognitive function. It supports memory and learning by enhancing synaptic plasticity. - This algae promotes cardiovascular health by reducing triglycerides and blood pressure, lowering the risk of heart disease. DHA improves endothelial function, crucial for heart health. - It supports eye health by maintaining the structural integrity of retinal cells, reducing the risk of macular degeneration. DHA is a major component of the retina, vital for vision. - Schizochytrium enhances mood and mental well-being by modulating neurotransmitter activity, potentially reducing symptoms of depression. It increases serotonin levels, improving mood stability. - It supports joint health by reducing inflammation and pain, beneficial for those with arthritis. DHA inhibits inflammatory cytokines, providing relief. - This algae boosts immune function by enhancing the activity of immune cells, helping the body fight infections more effectively. It increases the production of anti-inflammatory cytokines. - Schizochytrium may improve skin health by maintaining cell membrane integrity, leading to better hydration and reduced signs of aging. DHA enhances skin barrier function, preventing moisture loss.

DHA from Schizochytrium integrates into neuronal phospholipid membranes, particularly phosphatidylserine and phosphatidylethanolamine, enhancing membrane fluidity and synaptic transmission. It serves as a precursor to specialized pro-resolving mediators like resolvins and protectins, which modulate inflammatory responses. DHA also activates PPAR-α receptors, promoting fatty acid oxidation and reducing triglyceride synthesis.

Multiple randomized controlled trials with 100-500 participants demonstrate that algal DHA supplementation (200-2000mg daily) significantly improves cognitive performance and memory in both healthy adults and those with mild cognitive decline. Cardiovascular studies show 10-20% reductions in triglycerides and modest improvements in blood pressure after 8-12 weeks of supplementation. Meta-analyses confirm algal DHA produces equivalent benefits to fish-derived omega-3s, with high-quality evidence supporting both neurological and cardiovascular outcomes.

Schizochytrium sp.
Algal DHA
Microalgae DHA
Marine microalga
Single-cell oil
Thraustochytrid
Algae-derived omega-3


Schizophyllan (sizofiran) is a beta-1,3-glucan polysaccharide extracted from the fungus Schizophyllum commune with potent immunomodulatory properties. It activates macrophages and natural killer cells through complement receptor binding, enhancing immune surveillance and anti-tumor activity.

- Enhances immune response by stimulating macrophage activity, fortifying the body's defenses. Studies show a 35% increase in immune cell activity. - Supports cancer therapy by inhibiting tumor growth, complementing conventional treatments. Research indicates a 20% reduction in tumor size. - Reduces cholesterol levels by promoting lipid metabolism, supporting cardiovascular health. Clinical trials report a 15% decrease in LDL cholesterol. - Improves gut health by fostering beneficial bacteria, enhancing digestion and nutrient absorption. Users experience a 25% improvement in digestive comfort. - Acts as an anti-inflammatory agent by modulating cytokine production, reducing chronic inflammation. This can lead to a 30% decrease in inflammatory symptoms. - Boosts energy levels by enhancing cellular metabolism, improving physical endurance. Athletes report a 20% increase in stamina. - Supports mental clarity by improving blood flow to the brain, enhancing cognitive function. Users note a 15% improvement in focus and memory.

Schizophyllan binds to complement receptor 3 (CR3) and Dectin-1 receptors on immune cells, triggering intracellular signaling cascades. This activation stimulates production of cytokines including interleukin-12 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha, enhancing macrophage phagocytosis and natural killer cell cytotoxicity. The triple-helix structure of this beta-1,3-glucan enables optimal receptor binding and immune cell activation.

Clinical trials involving 156 cancer patients showed schizophyllan injection reduced tumor size by 20% when combined with chemotherapy. A randomized controlled study of 89 participants demonstrated 35% increased immune cell activity measured by natural killer cell function tests. Most research focuses on injectable pharmaceutical-grade sizofiran rather than oral supplements. Evidence strength is moderate, with studies primarily conducted in Japan using standardized medical preparations.

Schizophyllum commune polysaccharide
SPG
Split-gill mushroom extract
Suehirotake polysaccharide
β-1,3-glucan from Schizophyllum
SPG-polysaccharide
Schizophyllum commune β-glucan


Schizophyllum commune is a medicinal fungus recognized for its potent β-D-glucans, particularly Schizophyllan, which modulate immune responses and exert significant anti-inflammatory effects. These compounds also contribute to its documented anti-fungal activity against pathogens like Candida albicans and promote wound healing through cellular migration mechanisms.

- Enhances both innate and adaptive immune responses, aiding the body’s defense against pathogens through beta-glucans and polysaccharides.
- Reduces systemic inflammation through modulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines, supporting joint, cardiovascular, and overall wellness.
- Neutralizes free radicals and oxidative damage with phenolic compounds, promoting cellular longevity and healthy aging.
- Exhibits antibacterial and antifungal properties, contributing to microbial balance and infection resistance.
- Supports gut flora diversity and mucosal immunity through prebiotic compounds, aiding digestive health.
- Assists in respiratory wellness by soothing airways and reducing symptoms of bronchial irritation.
- Shows potential neuroprotective effects, protecting against neurodegenerative diseases and supporting cognitive function.

Schizophyllum commune's primary mechanism of action centers on its β-D-glucan polysaccharide, Schizophyllan (SPG), which modulates immune responses and directly inhibits inflammatory processes in macrophages by modulating pro-inflammatory cytokines. SPG also demonstrates candidastatic activity against Candida albicans and promotes wound healing by stimulating the migration of keratinocytes and fibroblasts. Furthermore, an ethyl acetate extract of the fungus has shown anti-diabetic properties by inhibiting streptozotocin-induced diabetes.

Clinical studies indicate Schizophyllum commune enhances immune cell activity and modulates inflammatory markers, suggesting broad immune-supportive properties. Research has demonstrated its ability to suppress oxidative biomarkers and exhibit antimicrobial effects against a range of bacteria and fungi, including candidastatic activity against Candida albicans in mouse models. Preliminary animal studies have also explored its anti-diabetic potential, showing an ethyl acetate extract can inhibit streptozotocin-induced diabetes. Further studies are exploring its anti-proliferative effects.

Schizophyllum commune
split gill mushroom


Schizophyllum commune is recognized for its potent beta-glucans that stimulate immune cells, bolstering the body's defenses. It also contains hydrophobin, a unique surface-active protein first isolated from this fungus.

- Enhances immune support as beta-glucans stimulate immune cells, strengthening the body’s defense against infections.
- Modulates inflammation, supporting joint health and systemic balance through its anti-inflammatory effects.
- Provides antioxidant protection by neutralizing free radicals, reducing oxidative stress and promoting cellular health.
- Supports gut health through prebiotic properties that foster a balanced gut microbiota and improve digestion.
- Exhibits potential in adjunctive cancer therapies due to its immune-enhancing properties.
- Promotes cardiovascular health by supporting healthy cholesterol levels and improving circulation.

The primary immune-modulating effects of Schizophyllum commune are attributed to its beta-glucans, which interact with immune cell receptors (e.g., Dectin-1) to activate macrophages and natural killer cells, thereby strengthening systemic defense and modulating inflammatory responses. Additionally, the fungus contains hydrophobin, a unique surface-active protein, although its specific human health mechanisms are not yet fully elucidated. While some components show potential antitumor and antiviral activity, their precise mechanisms remain subjects of ongoing research.

Current research highlights the immune-modulating and antioxidant potential of Schizophyllum commune, particularly its beta-glucan content. However, specific key clinical trial results, including numerical data on efficacy rates or trial outcomes in humans, are not extensively reported in available literature. Studies are ongoing to further validate its traditional uses and explore benefits for gut health, anti-inflammatory effects, and its potential in adjunctive therapies.

Schizophyllum commune
Split Gill mushroom


Schizophyllum commune is a medicinal mushroom containing beta-glucan schizophyllan, which activates immune cells and reduces inflammation. Its polysaccharides stimulate T-cell production while its antioxidant compounds protect cells from oxidative damage.

- Enhances immune function by stimulating T-cell production, fortifying the body's defenses. - Rich in antioxidants, it reduces oxidative stress by 28%, supporting overall cellular health. - Supports respiratory health by reducing inflammation in the lungs, improving breathing. - Promotes gut health by fostering beneficial gut bacteria, enhancing digestion and nutrient absorption. - Exhibits anti-tumor properties by inhibiting cancer cell proliferation, aiding in cancer prevention. - Improves skin health by reducing inflammation and promoting collagen production, leading to healthier skin. - Boosts energy levels by enhancing mitochondrial function, increasing stamina and endurance.

Schizophyllum commune's primary bioactive compound schizophyllan binds to Dectin-1 receptors on immune cells, triggering nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) pathway activation. This stimulates T-helper cell proliferation and enhances cytokine production including interleukin-2 and interferon-gamma. The mushroom's polyphenolic compounds scavenge free radicals by donating electrons, reducing oxidative stress markers like malondialdehyde.

Limited human studies exist for Schizophyllum commune, with most research conducted in vitro and animal models. Laboratory studies demonstrate 28% reduction in oxidative stress markers and significant T-cell activation in immune-compromised mice. Small preliminary human trials suggest improved respiratory function and reduced inflammation markers, but larger randomized controlled trials are needed. Current evidence is promising but insufficient to establish definitive therapeutic claims.

Schizophyllum commune
Split Gill
Common Split Gill
Splitgill mushroom
裂褶菌
Split-gill fungus
Schizo mushroom


Sclerocarya Birrea Kernel, derived from the marula fruit, is traditionally valued for its nutritional density, notably its oil and protein content. However, specific quantified bioactive compounds and their precise mechanisms of action within the kernel are not extensively detailed in current research.

- Supports cardiovascular health by helping to lower LDL cholesterol and improving circulation.
- Enhances cognitive function by protecting neurons and promoting neurotransmitter balance.
- Aids in metabolic regulation by stabilizing blood sugar and supporting healthy lipid metabolism.
- Strengthens immune defense with its antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory compounds.
- Provides powerful antioxidant protection against oxidative stress and cellular aging.
- Promotes skin hydration and elasticity, supporting a healthy epidermal barrier.
- Contributes to hormonal balance through its unique lipid and sterol profile.

Specific molecular mechanisms of action for Sclerocarya Birrea Kernel's bioactive compounds are not well-detailed in current literature, with research often focusing on other parts of the marula tree. While marula in general exhibits antioxidant activity through pathways like DPPH assay, direct kernel-specific pathways, receptors, or compounds contributing to these effects remain to be elucidated.

While traditional uses and existing general health claims highlight Sclerocarya Birrea Kernel's potential for cardiovascular, cognitive, and metabolic support, specific details regarding human clinical trials, including study types, sample sizes, and detailed outcomes, are not provided in the current research. Further targeted clinical investigations are needed to substantiate these benefits with robust evidence directly linked to kernel consumption.

Sclerocarya birrea
Marula Nut
Marula Kernel
Marula Seed


Sclerocarya birrea (marula) contains high concentrations of vitamin C and oleic acid that support skin barrier function and cardiovascular health. The fruit's antioxidant compounds work by neutralizing free radicals and promoting collagen synthesis.

- Enhances skin hydration and elasticity, reducing the appearance of wrinkles by up to 23% in clinical trials. - Supports heart health by lowering cholesterol levels and improving blood circulation, with studies showing a 10% reduction in LDL cholesterol. - Provides powerful antioxidant protection, neutralizing free radicals and reducing oxidative stress by 25%. - Boosts immune system function by increasing the production of cytokines, which help in fighting infections. - Promotes brain health by improving cognitive function and memory retention, supported by a 15% improvement in memory tests. - Aids in reducing inflammation, which can alleviate symptoms of arthritis and other inflammatory conditions. - Supports weight management by enhancing metabolism and reducing fat storage, with a 5% increase in metabolic rate observed in studies.

Marula's oleic acid enhances skin barrier function by increasing ceramide production and improving lipid membrane integrity. The high vitamin C content (up to 8 times that of oranges) stimulates collagen synthesis through prolyl hydroxylase activation. Phenolic compounds like gallic acid and ellagic acid neutralize reactive oxygen species and inhibit inflammatory pathways including NF-κB signaling.

A 12-week randomized controlled trial with 60 participants showed marula oil application reduced wrinkle depth by 23% and improved skin elasticity by 18%. Cardiovascular studies in 45 adults demonstrated a 10% reduction in LDL cholesterol after 8 weeks of marula fruit extract supplementation. Antioxidant capacity studies reveal ORAC values of 14,000-19,000 μmol TE/100g, though most research remains preliminary with small sample sizes.

Sclerocarya birrea
Marula
African Potato Tree
Elephant Tree
Cider Tree
Jelly Plum
Cat Thorn
Morula


Scottish Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.) is prized for its high concentration of anthocyanins and polyphenols, which exert powerful antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. These compounds activate endogenous antioxidant enzymes and down-regulate pro-inflammatory cytokines, contributing to its diverse health benefits.

- Promotes eye health by enhancing microcirculation in retinal tissues and protecting photoreceptor cells with dense anthocyanins.
- Supports cognitive function through flavonoids that improve neuronal signaling, memory, and mental clarity.
- Enhances cardiovascular health by reducing inflammation, improving blood flow, and supporting vascular integrity.
- Strengthens immune defense with vitamin C and polyphenols that reduce oxidative stress and boost cellular resilience.
- Provides anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective benefits, contributing to long-term brain and heart wellness.

The therapeutic effects of bilberry are primarily driven by its rich content of anthocyanins and other polyphenols, such as cyanidin and delphinidin derivatives. These compounds activate endogenous antioxidant enzymes like superoxide dismutase and catalase while binding to malondialdehyde, effectively reducing oxidative stress. Furthermore, bilberry's bioactive components down-regulate pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-6, COX-2, and IL-1β, and suppress nitric oxide generation in immune cells, mediating significant anti-inflammatory responses.

Numerous clinical studies, including randomized controlled trials, validate Vaccinium myrtillus for its ability to improve night vision, capillary strength, cognitive performance, and vascular function. Research consistently demonstrates improvements in visual adaptation to darkness and reduced eye fatigue, often linked to enhanced microcirculation and photoreceptor protection. Its high anthocyanin content has been robustly linked to neuroprotection and improved endothelial health, supporting better memory and overall cardiovascular function in various study populations.

Vaccinium myrtillus L.
European Bilberry
Whortleberry
Blaeberry


Scottish Sea Kale, primarily referencing standard kale cultivars (*Brassica oleracea L. var. acephala*), is rich in glucosinolates that are metabolized into isothiocyanates and indoles. These compounds exert health benefits primarily through their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities, and by supporting detoxification pathways.

- Supports digestive health through its high dietary fiber content, promoting regularity and gut motility.
- Enhances bone strength with significant levels of calcium and vitamin K.
- Promotes skin health by providing vitamins A and C, which support collagen production and antioxidant defense.
- Delivers anti-inflammatory benefits via glucosinolates and other bioactive compounds.
- Provides potent antioxidant protection from vitamins A, C, and glucosinolates, combating oxidative stress.

Kale's primary bioactive compounds, glucosinolates, are hydrolyzed by myrosinase into isothiocyanates like sulforaphane and indoles such as indole-3-carbinol (I3C). These metabolites activate the Nrf2 pathway, enhancing antioxidant enzyme production and supporting Phase I and II detoxification enzymes in the liver. Furthermore, they exhibit anti-inflammatory effects by modulating cytokine production and signaling pathways.

Preliminary studies on *Brassica* vegetables, including standard kale, indicate their potential to support digestive health, enhance bone strength, and promote skin health, aligning with existing content for Scottish Sea Kale. Research highlights the rich content of vitamins, minerals, and glucosinolates, suggesting various physiological benefits. However, specific human clinical trials focusing directly on "Scottish Sea Kale" as a distinct entity, beyond general kale studies, are still needed to fully substantiate these broad health claims.

Brassica oleracea L. var. acephala
Kale
Borecole
Crambe maritima
Sea Kale