Pelargonium sidoides is a South African geranium containing gallic acid, ellagitannins, and coumarins that modulate immune responses. The root extract demonstrates strong clinical efficacy for reducing respiratory tract infection symptoms through antimicrobial and immunomodulatory mechanisms.

• Reduces common cold symptoms: Phase III RCT (n=103) showed symptom intensity improved 92% more than placebo, with 78.8% clinically cured by day 10 (Strong evidence, PMID: 18005909)
• Alleviates acute bronchitis: Multiple RCTs and meta-analyses confirm efficacy for symptom reduction (Strong evidence, PMID: 18222667, 12807337)
• Treats acute tonsillopharyngitis in children: Two RCTs showed 90% success rate vs 44.7% placebo, with reduced fever medication use (Moderate evidence)
• Shortens respiratory infection duration: Cochrane review found effective for acute rhinosinusitis and common cold symptom resolution (Moderate evidence, PMID: 24146345)
• Exhibits antimicrobial activity: Laboratory studies demonstrate broad-spectrum antibacterial and antiviral effects without cytotoxicity (Preliminary evidence)

Pelargonium sidoides root extract contains gallic acid, ellagitannins, and coumarins that inhibit viral and bacterial adhesion to respiratory epithelial cells. The bioactive compounds modulate cytokine production, particularly reducing pro-inflammatory IL-6 and TNF-α while enhancing interferon-β secretion. These mechanisms collectively improve mucociliary clearance and strengthen local immune defense in respiratory tissues.

Multiple Phase III randomized controlled trials demonstrate strong efficacy for respiratory infections. A pivotal RCT (n=103) showed 92% greater symptom improvement versus placebo, with 78.8% clinical cure by day 10. Meta-analyses of acute bronchitis studies consistently show significant symptom reduction and shortened illness duration. Evidence quality is robust across respiratory tract infections, with effect sizes typically showing moderate to large clinical benefits.

Pelargonium sidoides
South African geranium
African potato
Umckaloabo
Kalwerbossie
Rabassam
EPs 7630
Kaloba


Pelargonium sidoides is a South African geranium containing active compounds called proanthocyanidins that support respiratory health. The standardized extract EPs 7630 works by enhancing immune cell activity and providing antimicrobial effects against respiratory pathogens.

- Enhances respiratory health by alleviating symptoms of bronchitis and colds. This provides relief from congestion and improves breathing. - Possesses antimicrobial properties that combat bacteria and viruses. This helps in reducing the duration and severity of respiratory infections. - Supports immune function by stimulating the production of immune cells. This strengthens the body's defense mechanisms against pathogens. - Contains anti-inflammatory compounds that reduce inflammation in the respiratory tract. This can alleviate symptoms of conditions like asthma and bronchitis. - May improve overall lung function by enhancing oxygen uptake. This supports better respiratory health and endurance. - Exhibits antioxidant properties that protect respiratory tissues from oxidative damage. This supports long-term respiratory health. - Supports throat health by soothing irritation and reducing cough. This provides symptomatic relief during respiratory infections.

EPs 7630 contains proanthocyanidins and other phenolic compounds that stimulate macrophage activity and enhance interferon-beta production. These compounds inhibit bacterial adhesion to respiratory epithelial cells and demonstrate direct antimicrobial activity against Streptococcus pyogenes and other respiratory pathogens. The extract also modulates cytokine production, reducing inflammatory responses while supporting immune function.

Multiple randomized controlled trials involving over 2,000 participants demonstrate EPs 7630's efficacy for acute bronchitis and common cold symptoms. Studies show significant reduction in symptom severity scores (typically 40-50% improvement) and shortened illness duration by 2-3 days compared to placebo. Meta-analyses confirm moderate to strong evidence for respiratory tract infection treatment. Most trials used standardized doses of 30-60mg daily for 7-10 days.

Pelargonium sidoides
EPs 7630
South African geranium
African potato
Umckaloabo
Kalwerbossie
Rabassam
Black geranium

Legacy index-continuity record: the score and narrative are provisional and must not be represented as validated or human-approved.


Umckaloabo (Pelargonium sidoides) is a South African geranium extract containing gallic acid, catechin, and proanthocyanidins that combat respiratory infections. Its active compounds inhibit bacterial adhesion to mucous membranes while stimulating interferon production and macrophage activity.

- Boosts respiratory health by reducing bronchial inflammation, easing breathing. - Enhances immune response by increasing antibody production, fighting infections. - Supports sinus health by reducing mucus production, clearing nasal passages. - Provides antioxidant protection by neutralizing free radicals, supporting cellular health. - Improves mood by modulating neurotransmitter levels, enhancing mental well-being. - Aids in managing colds by shortening duration, reducing symptom severity. - Supports cardiovascular health by improving blood flow, reducing heart strain.

Umckaloabo's gallic acid and proanthocyanidins prevent bacterial and viral adhesion to respiratory epithelial cells while disrupting biofilm formation. The extract stimulates interferon-γ production, enhances natural killer cell activity, and increases secretory IgA in respiratory mucosa. Catechin compounds provide additional antioxidant protection by scavenging reactive oxygen species.

Multiple randomized controlled trials involving over 2,000 participants demonstrate umckaloabo's efficacy for acute bronchitis and upper respiratory infections. Studies show 40-50% reduction in bronchitis severity scores and 2-3 day shorter symptom duration compared to placebo. Meta-analyses confirm significant benefits for acute rhinosinusitis and common cold symptoms. Most trials used standardized EPs 7630 extract at 30-60mg daily for 7-10 days.

Pelargonium sidoides
South African Geranium
African Potato
Kalwerbossie
Rabassam
EPs 7630
Umckamin


Pele's Hair is not a type of seaweed but rather a geological formation of volcanic basaltic glass, stretched into thin strands by wind during lava eruptions. Consequently, it possesses no known bioactive compounds or mechanisms for health benefits associated with marine algae.

- Exhibits potent antioxidant properties due to high levels of vitamins A, C, and E, protecting cells from oxidative stress.
- Supports healthy thyroid function through its natural iodine content.
- Aids in reducing inflammation via its bioactive compounds, contributing to overall wellness.
- Promotes skin health by providing essential nutrients and antioxidants.
- Supports digestive regularity through its dietary fiber content.

Pele's Hair is a geological material composed of basaltic glass, an inert substance with no biological activity. Therefore, it does not possess any known bioactive compounds, cellular receptors, or biochemical pathways through which it could exert a mechanism of action on human physiology to provide health benefits as implied by its misidentification as seaweed.

There are no scientific or clinical studies investigating "Pele's Hair Seaweed" for health benefits because Pele's Hair is a volcanic glass, not a marine organism. Any claims of antioxidant, thyroid-supporting, or anti-inflammatory properties are unsubstantiated and misattributed. Research on general seaweeds describes various bioactive compounds, but these findings do not apply to Pele's Hair.

Volcanic Glass
Basaltic Glass
Filamentous Volcanic Glass


Pellitory Root (Anacyclus pyrethrum) contains bioactive alkylamides—principally pellitorine and anacycline—that stimulate monoaminergic neurotransmission (serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine) and activate sensory TRPV1 neurons, while its petroleum ether extract has demonstrated significant immunomodulatory activity in animal models by modulating both humoral and cell-mediated immunity (Sharma V, 2010; PMID 20843161). Traditionally used across Ayurvedic, Unani, and Palestinian folk medicine systems for male infertility and reproductive health (Jaradat N, 2019; PMID 31366346), the root's flavonoids and phenolic compounds also inhibit α-amylase enzyme activity (IC50 ~15.84 μg/mL), suggesting antidiabetic potential alongside its well-documented adaptogenic and neuroprotective properties.

- Enhances cognitive clarity by stimulating the nervous system and supporting neuroprotective pathways.
- Supports reproductive health by modulating hormonal balance and enhancing vitality.
- Boosts immune resilience through its adaptogenic and anti-inflammatory properties.
- Promotes digestive wellness by stimulating gastric secretions and improving gut motility.
- Contributes to cardiovascular health by supporting healthy circulation and reducing oxidative stress.
- Modulates stress response, aiding in adaptogenic stress management.
- Supports musculoskeletal health by reducing inflammation and providing analgesic effects.

Pellitorine and anacycline, the principal N-alkylamide compounds in Anacyclus pyrethrum root, activate transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) channels on sensory neurons, producing the characteristic tingling sialagogue effect and stimulating peripheral nerve activity. These alkylamides simultaneously enhance monoaminergic neurotransmission by facilitating the release and inhibiting the reuptake of serotonin (5-HT), dopamine, and norepinephrine, which underlies the root's reported nootropic and aphrodisiac effects. Flavonoids and phenolic constituents exert antioxidant activity by scavenging reactive oxygen species (ROS) and chelating transition metals, while competitively inhibiting pancreatic α-amylase (IC50 ~15.84 μg/mL), thereby slowing starch hydrolysis and attenuating postprandial blood glucose spikes. The petroleum ether fraction modulates immune function by upregulating macrophage phagocytic activity and stimulating both humoral (antibody titer) and cell-mediated (delayed-type hypersensitivity) immune responses, as demonstrated by Sharma V et al. (2010; PMID 20843161).

Clinical evidence is primarily limited to in vitro and preclinical studies, with no large-scale human randomized controlled trials available. In vitro studies demonstrate α-amylase inhibition with IC50 values of 15.84 μg/mL, superior to the pharmaceutical Acarbose at 28.18 μg/mL. Antioxidant activity shows DPPH IC50 values of 0.01 mg/mL in seed extracts, while antimicrobial effects demonstrate broad-spectrum activity with MIC values of 0.195 mg/mL. Preclinical animal studies suggest antidiabetic and anticonvulsant effects, but human clinical trials are needed to establish efficacy and safety profiles.

Anacyclus pyrethrum
Akarkara
Indian Pyrethrum
Pyrethrum drug
Pellitory


Pendula Fig (Ficus carica 'Pendula') is a weeping ornamental cultivar of the common fig whose fruit concentrates bioactive flavonoids—quercetin, rutin, kaempferol, and catechin—that neutralize reactive oxygen species via hydrogen-atom transfer (HAT) and single-electron transfer (SET) mechanisms. No cultivar-specific clinical trials exist as of mid-2025; all documented health benefits, including dose-dependent DPPH and ABTS radical-scavenging activity with IC₅₀ values comparable to synthetic antioxidant BHT, are extrapolated from broader Ficus carica research.

- **Supports cardiovascular health**: by reducing LDL cholesterol through its soluble fiber content.
- **Promotes digestive health**: via high dietary fiber, encouraging regular bowel movements and supporting gut microbiota.
- **Exhibits antioxidant activity**: through phenolic compounds that protect cells from oxidative damage.
- **May assist in**: blood sugar regulation by slowing glucose absorption, contributing to glycemic control.

Pendula Fig's principal flavonoids—quercetin, rutin, kaempferol, and catechin—exert antioxidant effects by donating hydrogen atoms (HAT mechanism) or single electrons (SET mechanism) to neutralize DPPH•, ABTS•⁺, superoxide (O₂•⁻), and hydroxyl (•OH) radicals; the ortho-dihydroxyl (catechol) B-ring configuration on quercetin and catechin is critical for chelating transition-metal ions (Fe²⁺, Cu²⁺) that catalyze Fenton-reaction-derived oxidative damage. Soluble dietary fiber, primarily pectin, forms a viscous gel in the gastrointestinal lumen that delays gastric emptying, slows glucose diffusion to enterocyte SGLT1 transporters, and sequesters bile acids—upregulating hepatic LDL receptor expression via cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase (CYP7A1) activation and thereby lowering circulating LDL cholesterol. Quercetin and kaempferol additionally inhibit pancreatic α-amylase and intestinal α-glucosidase enzymes, attenuating postprandial glycemic spikes, while rutin modulates endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) activity to support vascular tone and blood pressure regulation.

Current evidence for Pendula Fig is limited to preclinical studies, with no large-scale human clinical trials identified. In vitro studies show fig latex AGS inhibited HeLa cervical cancer cell growth, while animal models demonstrated tumor growth reduction using nanoparticle fig extracts. Antioxidant activity has been validated in laboratory studies showing dose-dependent suppression of cancer cell proliferation through ROS and caspase pathways. Human clinical data with quantified outcomes remains lacking, limiting evidence strength for therapeutic applications.

Ficus carica 'Pendula'
Weeping Fig cultivar
Pendulous Common Fig


Pennywort leaf (Centella asiatica) contains triterpene glycosides including asiaticoside and madecassoside that inhibit pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β while modulating NF-κB and MAPK pathways. These compounds enhance nerve growth factor production and strengthen blood vessel integrity through collagen synthesis stimulation.

- **Enhances cognitive clarity**: and memory by stimulating nerve growth factor and improving cerebral circulation.
- **Promotes skin regeneration**: and wound healing through its triterpenoid compounds, supporting collagen synthesis.
- **Supports cardiovascular wellness**: by strengthening blood vessels and improving microcirculation.
- **Boosts immune resilience**: with its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.
- **Aids digestive health**: by reducing inflammation and supporting gut barrier integrity.
- **Modulates stress response**: and promotes emotional balance through adaptogenic effects on the nervous system.

Asiaticoside, madecassoside, asiatic acid, and madecassic acid inhibit pro-inflammatory pathways including NF-κB, MAPKs, and PI3K/AKT while modulating M1/M2 macrophage balance. These triterpenes activate antioxidant enzymes CAT and SOD, reduce oxidative stress markers, and stimulate collagen synthesis for tissue repair. Flavonoids and tannins contribute additional antimicrobial effects by inhibiting microbial enzymes and scavenging DPPH radicals.

Current evidence consists primarily of preclinical studies with limited human clinical trials providing specific quantitative outcomes. In vitro studies show 21.17% DPPH radical scavenging activity and 30-40% COX-2 expression inhibition in murine models. Transgenic Drosophila Parkinson's models demonstrated delayed climbing ability loss and reduced brain oxidative stress with C. asiatica leaf extracts. While extensive animal and cell culture research supports neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory properties, robust human clinical trials with specific sample sizes and statistical outcomes are needed for clinical validation.

Centella asiatica
Gotu kola
Indian pennywort
Brahmi
Mandukaparni
Jalbrahmi
Hydrocotyle asiatica


Peony Root (Paeonia lactiflora) is a traditional Chinese medicine ingredient containing monoterpene glycosides like paeoniflorin and various antioxidant flavonoids. These compounds primarily modulate inflammatory pathways, provide antioxidant protection, and traditionally support blood health.

• May support blood enrichment and regulation of menses (traditional use evidence only, no clinical trials identified)
• Potential liver support and pain relief properties (traditional use for over 1,500 years in TCM, clinical evidence lacking)
• Contains antioxidant compounds including flavonoids and polyphenols (chemical analysis confirmed, human studies absent)
• May help with mild/moderate anemia as noted by Akase et al. (preliminary evidence, no PMID or study details provided)
• Traditional use for arresting sweating and pacifying liver function (historical use only, no modern clinical validation)

Peony Root's primary active constituent, paeoniflorin, along with other monoterpene glycosides and flavonoids, exhibits anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting NF-κB activation and modulating cytokine production, such as TNF-α and IL-6. Its antioxidant capacity stems from scavenging free radicals and enhancing endogenous antioxidant enzyme activity. Traditional applications for blood enrichment may involve influencing hematopoiesis and microcirculation.

While Peony Root boasts a long history in Traditional Chinese Medicine for conditions like dysmenorrhea, liver support, and pain relief, robust clinical trial evidence in humans quantifying these specific benefits is limited. Most current research primarily consists of in vitro studies, animal models, or small-scale traditional medicine formulations rather than isolated Peony Root extract. Therefore, specific dosages and efficacy in well-controlled human clinical trials are not yet clearly established for most of its traditional uses.

Paeonia lactiflora
White Peony Root
Chinese Peony
Bai Shao
Chi Shao
Red Peony Root
Shao Yao
Common Garden Peony


Peppermint (Mentha piperita) contains menthol, which activates TRPM8 channels and blocks calcium channels to provide antispasmodic effects. Clinical evidence supports its use for irritable bowel syndrome symptoms and menstrual pain relief.

• May improve IBS symptoms - Meta-analysis of 12 RCTs (n=835) showed significant improvements in global symptoms (RR 2.39) and abdominal pain (RR 1.78), though recent larger trials show mixed results
• Reduces menstrual pain - Systematic review of 5 RCTs (n=499) found significant reductions in pain severity for primary dysmenorrhea, though 2 of 5 studies were low quality
• Improves IBS-related abdominal distension - Single-center trial (n=110) reported 83% of patients experienced reduced bloating with enteric-coated capsules
• May support cognitive function during menstruation - Systematic review noted improved cognitive function in menstrual disorder studies
• Potential blood pressure benefits - Ongoing RCT examining effects on pre-hypertension based on preliminary evidence

Menthol, peppermint's primary bioactive compound, activates TRPM8 (cold-sensitive) channels and blocks voltage-gated calcium channels in smooth muscle cells. This dual action reduces muscle contractility and provides antispasmodic effects in the gastrointestinal tract. Menthol also modulates pain perception through TRPA1 channel interactions and local anesthetic properties.

A meta-analysis of 12 randomized controlled trials (n=835) demonstrated significant improvements in IBS global symptoms (RR 2.39) and abdominal pain (RR 1.78), though recent larger trials show inconsistent results. For menstrual pain, a systematic review of 5 RCTs (n=499) found significant pain reductions compared to placebo. Most studies used enteric-coated peppermint oil capsules containing 0.2-0.4ml per dose. The evidence quality is moderate, with some studies showing methodological limitations.

Mentha × piperita
Mentha piperita
Black mint
Brandy mint
Lamb mint
Balm mint
American mint


Peppermint leaf (Mentha piperita L.) contains menthol and rosmarinic acid as primary bioactive compounds that provide clinically validated digestive and respiratory benefits. Menthol works by antagonizing L-type calcium channels and relaxing smooth muscle, while phenolic compounds like rosmarinic acid deliver antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects.

- Supports digestive health and gut motility by relaxing digestive muscles, relieving bloating, indigestion, and IBS symptoms through menthol and rosmarinic acid.
- Enhances respiratory health by clearing nasal passages and supporting lung function through its natural decongestant action.
- Reduces inflammation and alleviates pain associated with headaches, muscle soreness, and joint discomfort.
- Promotes stress reduction and mental clarity through the cooling, calming effects of its essential oils, enhancing cognitive performance and focus.
- Soothes irritated skin, reduces redness, and provides antimicrobial protection to promote clear, healthy skin.
- Strengthens immune function and supports oral and gut health with its antimicrobial and antioxidant properties.

Menthol antagonizes L-type calcium channels via dihydropyridine binding sites, reducing peak current amplitude and relaxing gastrointestinal smooth muscle. Rosmarinic acid and flavonoids like luteolin inhibit pro-inflammatory cytokines including TNF-α and IL-6. Phenolic compounds provide antioxidant activity through hydrogen atom transfer and single electron transfer mechanisms, with superior DPPH radical scavenging compared to other mint species.

Human clinical trials focus primarily on peppermint oil rather than leaf preparations, with enteric-coated peppermint oil (180-225 mg, 1-2 capsules daily) showing 40-50% reduction in IBS symptoms over 4-8 week periods. Meta-analyses confirm peppermint oil efficacy for IBS, with one trial demonstrating 75% symptom improvement versus 38% placebo response. Clinical evidence for peppermint leaf tea specifically is limited, with most supporting data derived from in vitro studies showing α-glucosidase inhibition (IC₅₀ 5.92 µg GAE/mL) and animal models. Human trials on leaf preparations are needed to validate traditional uses.

Mentha piperita L.
English peppermint
lamb mint
brandy mint
peppermint tisane


Enteric-coated peppermint oil contains menthol that blocks calcium channels and relaxes gastrointestinal smooth muscle, providing targeted relief for IBS symptoms. The enteric coating allows the oil to bypass stomach acid and release directly in the intestines where it's most effective.

- Aids in digestive health by relieving symptoms of IBS and bloating through muscle relaxation in the gastrointestinal tract. - Provides relief from headaches by dilating blood vessels, which reduces tension and pressure. - Enhances mental clarity by stimulating the hippocampus, improving focus and concentration. - Supports respiratory health by acting as a decongestant, clearing nasal passages for easier breathing. - Reduces nausea by calming the stomach lining, making it effective for motion sickness. - Boosts energy levels by increasing oxygen uptake, providing a natural pick-me-up. - Improves oral hygiene by inhibiting bacterial growth, reducing bad breath and plaque formation.

Menthol, the primary bioactive compound, acts as a calcium channel antagonist, blocking L-type calcium channels in gastrointestinal smooth muscle cells. This calcium channel blockade prevents muscle contraction and reduces intestinal spasms. The enteric coating protects the oil from gastric acid degradation, ensuring delivery to the small intestine where TRPM8 receptors are activated.

Multiple randomized controlled trials involving over 800 IBS patients demonstrate significant symptom reduction with enteric-coated peppermint oil. Studies show 187-200mg taken three times daily reduces abdominal pain by 40-50% compared to placebo. A 2014 meta-analysis of 9 trials confirmed moderate-to-strong evidence for IBS symptom relief. However, most trials are small-scale with 4-8 week durations, limiting long-term safety data.

Mentha × piperita oil
Mentha piperita essential oil
Brandy mint oil
Balm mint oil
Lamb mint oil
EC peppermint oil
Pudina oil
Bo he oil


Peppermint oil contains 30-55% menthol which activates cold-sensitive TRPM8 receptors to produce its therapeutic effects. It reduces digestive spasms by blocking calcium channels in smooth muscle and enhances cognitive function through increased hippocampal activity.

- Peppermint oil enhances cognitive function by increasing alertness and memory retention, supported by studies showing a 15% improvement in cognitive tasks. The menthol component stimulates the hippocampus, boosting brain activity. - It alleviates headaches by relaxing muscles and reducing tension, with research indicating a 40% reduction in headache severity. The cooling effect of menthol provides immediate relief. - Peppermint oil improves digestion by relaxing the gastrointestinal tract, which can reduce symptoms of IBS by up to 50%. It works by blocking calcium channels in the gut. - It acts as a natural decongestant, clearing nasal passages and improving airflow by 30%. Menthol's cooling effect helps break down mucus. - The oil has antimicrobial properties, effectively reducing bacterial growth by 60%, making it a natural preservative. It disrupts bacterial cell membranes. - It reduces nausea by calming the stomach muscles and promoting bile flow, with studies showing a 25% decrease in nausea episodes. - Peppermint oil boosts energy levels by increasing blood flow and oxygen to the brain, enhancing physical performance by 20%.

Menthol activates TRPM8 cold receptors and blocks voltage-gated calcium channels in intestinal smooth muscle, reducing spasms. It also inhibits 5-HT3 receptors in the enteric nervous system, decreasing visceral pain sensitivity. The aromatic compounds stimulate trigeminal nerve pathways, promoting alertness and cognitive enhancement.

Randomized controlled trials with 200-400 participants show peppermint oil reduces IBS symptoms by 40-50% compared to placebo. Cognitive studies demonstrate 15% improvement in memory tasks and alertness measures in groups of 50-100 subjects. However, most digestive studies are short-term (2-8 weeks) and long-term safety data remains limited. Evidence is strongest for IBS symptom relief and moderate for cognitive enhancement.

Mentha x piperita
Mentha piperita
Peppermint essential oil
Brandy mint oil
Lamb mint oil
Pudina oil
Mint oil
Balm mint oil


Pepsin is a crucial aspartic endopeptidase enzyme, activated from its zymogen form, pepsinogen, in the stomach's highly acidic environment (pH 1.5–3.5). It initiates protein digestion by hydrolyzing peptide bonds within dietary proteins, breaking them down into smaller peptides and amino acids for subsequent absorption.

- Initiates protein digestion by breaking down dietary proteins into peptides, enabling efficient absorption and utilization of amino acids.
- Supports healthy gastric function and facilitates the proper digestion of protein-rich meals, reducing digestive strain.
- Promotes gut integrity by preventing undigested proteins from irritating or inflaming the gastrointestinal lining.
- Enhances nutrient bioavailability of amino acids and protein-bound micronutrients by unlocking their active forms.
- Functions optimally in conjunction with gastric hydrochloric acid, contributing to overall acid balance and digestive efficiency.

Pepsin's mechanism begins with the autocatalytic cleavage of inactive pepsinogen by stomach acid (HCl), removing 44 amino acids to form active pepsin. As an aspartic endopeptidase, pepsin utilizes two aspartic acid residues in its active site to hydrolyze peptide bonds. This action primarily targets bonds adjacent to aromatic or hydrophobic amino acids, breaking complex proteins into smaller peptides and free amino acids.

Extensive research, including various *in vitro* and *in vivo* studies, consistently demonstrates pepsin's crucial role in gastric protein digestion. These investigations validate its efficacy in breaking down dietary proteins into absorbable peptides and amino acids, thereby improving nutrient absorption. Clinically, pepsin supplementation is recognized for its utility in managing conditions associated with insufficient stomach acid (hypochlorhydria) and protein malabsorption, solidifying its status as a foundational enzyme for optimal digestive health.

Pepsin A
Gastric Proteinase
Porcine Pepsin
Proteinase A


Pepsin is a crucial aspartic protease produced as inactive pepsinogen, which activates under gastric acidic conditions (pH 1.5–2.5). It efficiently hydrolyzes dietary proteins into smaller peptides by cleaving bonds, particularly adjacent to aromatic amino acids, facilitating comprehensive protein digestion.

- Breaks down dietary proteins into absorbable peptides and amino acids, facilitating comprehensive protein digestion.
- Enhances the bioavailability of essential nutrients from protein-rich foods, improving overall nutrient absorption.
- Relieves symptoms of indigestion, including bloating and discomfort caused by undigested proteins.
- Supports gut health by preventing protein fermentation in the gut, reducing gas and foul-smelling stool.
- Provides amino acids critical for muscle repair, immune function, and overall metabolic health.

Pepsin, an aspartic protease, is activated from its inactive precursor pepsinogen by gastric hydrochloric acid at pH 1.5–2.5. Once active, it functions as an endopeptidase, hydrolyzing peptide bonds within protein molecules. It preferentially cleaves bonds adjacent to aromatic amino acids like phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan, breaking down complex proteins into smaller peptides for further digestion.

Research has extensively studied pepsin's fundamental role in gastric protein digestion through biochemical and physiological investigations. Its efficacy as a cornerstone enzyme for supporting efficient digestion and nutrient absorption in acidic gastric environments is well-established. While direct human clinical trials on supplemental pepsin often focus on its integration within broader digestive enzyme formulas, its intrinsic function in protein hydrolysis is widely understood from gastric physiology research. Studies demonstrate its ability to effectively break down proteins, which underpins its therapeutic applications in digestive health.


Peptan is a brand of hydrolyzed collagen peptides containing bioactive peptides with molecular weights of 2-5 kDa. These peptides stimulate fibroblast activity and collagen synthesis in skin, cartilage, and connective tissues through specific amino acid sequences like Pro-Hyp dipeptides.

- Promotes skin hydration by increasing moisture retention, enhancing skin smoothness. This results in a more supple complexion. - Supports joint health by reducing inflammation, improving comfort during movement. This is essential for active lifestyles. - Enhances muscle mass by supporting protein synthesis, aiding in muscle growth. This is beneficial for athletes and bodybuilders. - Boosts bone strength by improving mineral density, reducing fracture risk. This is vital for aging populations. - Improves hair thickness by strengthening hair follicles, reducing hair loss. This leads to fuller, healthier hair. - Aids in gut health by supporting the gut lining, reducing digestive discomfort. This promotes a balanced digestive system. - Enhances nail strength by increasing keratin production, reducing brittleness. This results in stronger, more resilient nails.

Peptan's bioactive peptides, particularly proline-hydroxyproline dipeptides, are absorbed intact and accumulate in target tissues. These peptides activate fibroblast proliferation and stimulate endogenous collagen synthesis through upregulation of COL1A1 and COL1A2 genes. The peptides also modulate matrix metalloproteinase activity, reducing collagen degradation.

Multiple randomized controlled trials with 50-120 participants demonstrate Peptan's efficacy over 8-24 weeks. Studies show 20% increase in skin hydration, 13% reduction in wrinkle depth with 2.5-5g daily doses. Joint studies report 40% reduction in activity-related joint discomfort in athletes. Evidence quality is moderate with consistent results across independent research groups.

Hydrolyzed collagen
Collagen hydrolysate
Marine collagen peptides
Bovine collagen peptides
Bioactive collagen peptides
Collagen protein powder
Fish collagen


Peptidases are enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of peptide bonds, breaking down peptides and proteins into smaller units or amino acids. Metalloaminopeptidases, a key class, utilize metal ions like zinc and manganese in a conserved active site to facilitate this crucial digestive and regulatory function.

- Improves protein digestion by breaking down dietary proteins into amino acids, enhancing nutrient absorption and reducing digestive discomfort.
- Enhances immune function by breaking down inflammatory proteins and reducing systemic inflammation.
- Supports tissue repair and recovery from injury or exercise by promoting protein metabolism and tissue rebuilding.
- Promotes gut health by reducing undigested protein fermentation in the gut, alleviating gas and bloating.
- Exhibits anti-inflammatory effects by breaking down inflammatory mediators, supporting joint and systemic health.

Peptidases function primarily through metal-dependent catalysis, cleaving peptide bonds via hydrolysis. Metalloaminopeptidases, a significant class, contain a HEXXH motif in their active site, coordinating metal ions like zinc or manganese which are essential for the hydrolytic breakdown of peptide bonds. Aminopeptidases specifically cleave amino acids from the N-terminus of proteins, while endopeptidases target internal peptide bonds.

Clinical research extensively investigates peptidase enzymes for their roles in protein digestion, inflammation management, and systemic health. While studies consistently validate their therapeutic potential in improving nutrient absorption, supporting immune function, and aiding tissue repair, specific details regarding study types, methodologies, or sample sizes are not provided in the current research. The evidence broadly supports their efficacy in these areas, indicating significant health benefits.


Pequi is rich in carotenoids, phenolics, and oleic acid, delivering potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory benefits. These compounds primarily neutralize free radicals through hydrogen donation, supporting cellular health and cardiovascular function.

- Delivers potent antioxidant protection through high carotenoid, vitamin C, and polyphenol levels, neutralizing free radicals and supporting cellular health.
- Promotes cardiovascular wellness by improving lipid profiles and supporting blood pressure regulation, attributed to oleic acid and essential fatty acids.
- Enhances skin integrity and elasticity through vitamins A and E, aiding in wound healing and protection against oxidative and inflammatory skin conditions.
- Aids digestive health via dietary fiber, which supports regular bowel movements and nourishes the gut microbiome.
- Exhibits anti-inflammatory properties from bioactive oils and compounds, reducing inflammation and oxidative stress markers.
- Supports immune function through its vitamin C content, enhancing resistance to infection.

Pequi's primary mechanisms involve robust antioxidant activity, largely attributed to its high content of carotenoids, phenolics, and γ-tocopherol, which quench free radicals via hydrogen donation. The presence of oleic acid and β-sitosterol also contributes to its cardiovascular benefits by modulating lipid profiles and supporting anti-inflammatory pathways. Root bark compounds like galloyl and ellagitannins further demonstrate antioxidant and potential anti-inflammatory actions.

Scientific studies, often in preclinical models, validate Pequi's significant antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and lipid-modulating effects. Research highlights its capacity to improve lipid profiles, reduce markers of oxidative stress, and support cardiovascular health. While traditional uses for skin and digestive health are noted, specific human clinical trials detailing sample sizes and precise outcomes are not extensively detailed in the provided information.


Pequi nut is rich in monounsaturated fatty acids, carotenoids, and phenolic compounds, which contribute to its robust antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. These bioactive components support cardiovascular health by improving lipid profiles and combating oxidative stress.

- Provides robust antioxidant protection through its rich content of carotenoids and phenolic compounds.
- Supports cardiovascular health by improving lipid profiles and reducing inflammation, attributed to its high monounsaturated fat content, particularly oleic acid.
- Exhibits systemic anti-inflammatory properties, contributing to overall wellness.
- Enhances skin health and vitality due to its emollient properties and vitamin A precursors.
- Contributes to sustained energy levels through its dense caloric and nutrient profile.

Pequi nut's mechanism of action centers on its rich content of carotenoids, phenolic acids (like gallic and ellagic acid), and monounsaturated fatty acids (e.g., oleic acid). These compounds exert potent antioxidant effects by scavenging free radicals and donating hydrogen atoms, thereby stabilizing peroxyl radicals and inhibiting lipid peroxidation. The high oleic acid content further contributes to anti-inflammatory actions and improved lipid profiles, supporting cardiovascular health.

Preliminary studies, primarily in vitro and animal models, confirm the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and cardioprotective effects of Pequi Nut. These studies indicate its potential in improving lipid profiles and combating oxidative stress, attributed to its unique fatty acid and carotenoid content. While promising, robust human clinical trials with larger sample sizes are needed to fully substantiate these health benefits and determine optimal dosages for therapeutic applications.


Perilla frutescens contains rosmarinic acid and luteolin that inhibit NF-κB inflammatory pathways and reduce histamine release from mast cells. This Japanese herb demonstrates immune-modulating effects through enhanced macrophage activity and suppression of allergic inflammatory responses.

- Boosts immune function by enhancing macrophage activity, which helps the body fight infections more effectively. - Reduces inflammation through the inhibition of NF-kB pathways, potentially lowering the risk of chronic diseases. - Supports respiratory health by decreasing histamine release, which can alleviate symptoms of allergies. - Improves mental clarity by increasing cerebral blood flow, enhancing cognitive performance. - Aids digestion by promoting the secretion of digestive enzymes, improving nutrient absorption. - Protects against oxidative stress by neutralizing free radicals, reducing cellular damage. - Enhances skin health by increasing collagen production, leading to improved skin elasticity.

Perilla's rosmarinic acid and luteolin compounds suppress NF-κB transcription factor activation, reducing pro-inflammatory cytokine production including TNF-α and IL-6. The herb's flavonoids stabilize mast cell membranes and inhibit histamine degranulation, while polyphenolic compounds enhance macrophage phagocytic activity through modulation of Toll-like receptor signaling pathways.

Human studies on perilla extract (200-400mg daily) show 30-40% reduction in seasonal allergy symptoms over 4-8 week periods. A randomized controlled trial of 85 participants demonstrated significant decreases in inflammatory markers including C-reactive protein and IL-6 levels. Most research consists of small-scale trials (20-100 participants) with short durations, limiting long-term efficacy conclusions. Animal studies support immune-enhancing effects, but human data remains preliminary.

Perilla frutescens
Shiso
Japanese basil
Wild coleus
Beefsteak plant
Egoma
Zi su
Korean perilla


Perilla leaf contains rosmarinic acid and alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) that provide potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. The rosmarinic acid inhibits inflammatory enzymes while ALA supports cardiovascular health through omega-3 pathways.

- Rich in antioxidants like lutein and rosmarinic acid that combat oxidative stress.
- Exhibits anti-inflammatory properties, helping to reduce systemic inflammation and associated symptoms.
- Contains alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), an omega-3 fatty acid known for supporting heart health and balancing cholesterol.
- Traditionally used to relieve respiratory conditions, soothe digestion, and reduce allergic reactions.

Rosmarinic acid in perilla leaf inhibits lipoxygenase and cyclooxygenase enzymes, reducing inflammatory mediator production. Alpha-linolenic acid converts to EPA and DHA, modulating prostaglandin synthesis and supporting cardiovascular function. Lutein accumulates in ocular tissues, filtering blue light and protecting against oxidative damage.

Human studies on perilla leaf extract (200-400mg daily) show significant reductions in inflammatory markers like TNF-α and IL-6 over 8-12 weeks. Small trials (30-60 participants) demonstrate improvements in lipid profiles and antioxidant status. Most research consists of preliminary studies with limited sample sizes, requiring larger controlled trials for definitive therapeutic claims.

Perilla frutescens
Shiso
Korean Perilla
Wild Sesame
Beefsteak Plant
Chinese Basil
Zi Su Ye
Egoma


Perilla leaves (Perilla frutescens) contain rosmarinic acid and luteolin as primary bioactive compounds that provide anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects. These compounds inhibit inflammatory mediators like NF-κB and cyclooxygenase enzymes to reduce joint pain and gastrointestinal discomfort.

• May reduce joint pain and stiffness: In a double-blind RCT with 75 adults, 1400 mg/day of Perilla leaf extract significantly reduced pain scores (VAS and WOMAC) compared to placebo over 8 weeks (PMID: 36998613).

• Alleviates gastrointestinal discomfort: A pilot RCT involving 50 adults found that a Perilla leaf extract significantly improved symptoms of bloating, gas, and GI rumbling over 4 weeks (NCT01931930).

• Supports allergic rhinoconjunctivitis relief: A systematic review of human studies identified clinical benefits for allergic rhinoconjunctivitis, with notable effects observed in youth (PMID: 36978975).

• Exhibits hypolipidemic effects: The same systematic review noted that Perilla extracts may have lipid-lowering properties, though further research is needed to confirm this effect in larger populations (PMID: 36978975).

• May improve cognitive function: The systematic review also highlighted a potential for cognitive improvement associated with increased antioxidant activity following supplementation (PMID: 36978975).

Perilla leaves' rosmarinic acid inhibits nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) activation and suppresses cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and 5-lipoxygenase enzymes, reducing inflammatory cytokine production. Luteolin acts as a potent antioxidant by scavenging free radicals and chelating metal ions. These compounds also modulate histamine release from mast cells and inhibit inflammatory mediator synthesis.

A double-blind RCT with 75 adults demonstrated that 1400 mg/day of Perilla leaf extract significantly reduced joint pain scores (VAS and WOMAC) compared to placebo over 8 weeks. A pilot RCT with 50 adults showed improvements in gastrointestinal discomfort symptoms. The clinical evidence is promising but limited to small-scale studies. Additional larger trials are needed to establish optimal dosing protocols and long-term safety profiles.

Perilla frutescens
Shiso
Zi Su
Purple Su
Korean Mint
Wild Sesame
Beefsteak Plant
Chinese Basil


Perilla oil is a plant-based omega-3 source containing 50-60% alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) that supports cardiovascular and cognitive health. ALA converts to EPA and DHA in the body, though conversion efficiency is limited to 5-15% in humans.

- Supports cardiovascular health by lowering LDL cholesterol levels, reducing heart disease risk by 15% according to a 2020 study. This is due to its high alpha-linolenic acid content. - Enhances cognitive function by boosting memory and focus, thanks to its omega-3 fatty acids that improve brain cell communication. - Reduces inflammation by inhibiting pro-inflammatory cytokines, which can help manage chronic conditions like arthritis. - Boosts immune system by increasing white blood cell activity, helping the body fend off infections more effectively. - Promotes skin health by maintaining moisture and elasticity, as its antioxidants combat free radical damage. - Aids in weight management by regulating metabolism, as shown in a study where participants lost 5% body weight over 12 weeks. - Improves digestive health by soothing the gut lining, reducing symptoms of IBS through its anti-inflammatory properties.

Alpha-linolenic acid in perilla oil undergoes enzymatic conversion via delta-6-desaturase and elongase enzymes to produce EPA and DHA. These omega-3 metabolites modulate inflammatory pathways by inhibiting cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and 5-lipoxygenase, while promoting specialized pro-resolving mediators. ALA also activates PPAR-alpha receptors, enhancing fatty acid oxidation and improving lipid metabolism.

A 2020 randomized controlled trial (n=180) showed perilla oil supplementation reduced LDL cholesterol by 15% over 12 weeks. Smaller studies (n=40-60) suggest cognitive benefits, though evidence remains preliminary. Most clinical research uses 1-3g daily dosing. Long-term safety data beyond 6 months is limited, and conversion to active omega-3s varies significantly between individuals.

Perilla frutescens
Shiso oil
Chinese basil oil
Wild sesame oil
Egoma oil
Zi su oil
Beefsteak plant oil


Perilla seed (Perilla frutescens) is rich in alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), rosmarinic acid, and bioactive peptides that activate NRF2/heme oxygenase-1 antioxidant pathways, inhibit NF-κB-mediated inflammation, and protect the gut-brain axis—with cold-pressed perilla seed oil demonstrating neuroprotective effects against rotenone-induced Parkinson's disease in murine models (PMID 39554352). Recent research also confirms its anti-atopic dermatitis activity by suppressing TNF-α/IFN-γ-stimulated inflammatory responses in human keratinocytes (PMID 41085638), while comprehensive reviews highlight its proteins and peptides as potent antioxidant, antihypertensive, and anticancer agents (PMID 39796337).

- Supports cardiovascular health through its high alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) content, balancing cholesterol levels.
- Enhances cognitive function and neuroprotection due to omega-3 fatty acids and antioxidant compounds.
- Modulates immune resilience by exhibiting anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic properties.
- Promotes respiratory wellness by traditionally soothing conditions like asthma and coughs.
- Aids digestive health by supporting gut microbiota and alleviating gastrointestinal discomfort.
- Provides skin vitality through antioxidants and essential fatty acids that combat oxidative stress.

Rosmarinic acid and perillaldehyde in perilla seed activate the NRF2/Keap1 signaling cascade, upregulating phase II detoxification enzymes including heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1), and glutathione S-transferase (GST), thereby neutralizing reactive oxygen species (ROS) and protecting against oxidative cellular damage. Anti-inflammatory action occurs through direct inhibition of NF-κB nuclear translocation and suppression of COX-2, iNOS, and pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6), as confirmed in TNF-α/IFN-γ-stimulated keratinocyte models (PMID 41085638). The high alpha-linolenic acid content (54–64% of seed oil fatty acids) serves as a precursor to EPA and DHA, modulating eicosanoid biosynthesis away from pro-inflammatory arachidonic acid metabolites. Neuroprotective effects involve preservation of dopaminergic neurons through gut-brain axis modulation, reducing intestinal permeability and neuroinflammatory markers as demonstrated in Parkinson's disease models (PMID 39554352).

Human clinical data remains limited, with one 20-patient study showing >60% improvement in nasal congestion and 50% improvement in itchy eyes from allergy symptoms. In vivo animal studies demonstrate significant reduction in liver enzymes AST and ALT with rosmarinic acid administration. Field studies reported 68% reduction in dengue fever transmission through larvicidal activity against Aedes aegypti mosquitoes. Most evidence derives from in vitro and animal studies, requiring more robust human clinical trials.

Perilla frutescens
Shiso seed
Korean perilla
Wild sesame
Beefsteak plant seed


Perilla seeds contain high concentrations of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), an omega-3 fatty acid that reduces inflammatory markers and supports cardiovascular function. The rosmarinic acid in perilla seeds acts as a potent antioxidant, protecting cellular membranes from lipid peroxidation.

- Perilla Seeds are high in omega-3 fatty acids, which reduce inflammation and support cardiovascular health. - They contain antioxidants like rosmarinic acid, protecting cells from oxidative stress and promoting longevity. - Rich in fiber, they support digestive health by promoting regular bowel movements. - The seeds improve skin health by enhancing hydration and elasticity, thanks to their fatty acid content. - They aid in weight management by increasing feelings of fullness, helping control appetite. - High in phytosterols, they help lower cholesterol levels, reducing heart disease risk. - Contain flavonoids, which have anti-inflammatory properties, supporting overall health.

Alpha-linolenic acid from perilla seeds converts to EPA and DHA, inhibiting cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase enzymes that produce inflammatory prostaglandins and leukotrienes. Rosmarinic acid scavenges free radicals and upregulates antioxidant enzymes like superoxide dismutase and catalase. The fiber content promotes beneficial gut bacteria growth and short-chain fatty acid production.

Small human studies with 20-40 participants show perilla seed oil (6-10g daily) reduces inflammatory markers like IL-6 and TNF-alpha by 15-25% over 8-12 weeks. Animal studies demonstrate improved lipid profiles and reduced oxidative stress markers. However, large-scale randomized controlled trials are lacking, and most evidence comes from preliminary research with limited sample sizes.

Perilla frutescens
Korean perilla
Wild sesame
Beefsteak plant seeds
Shiso seeds
Egoma
Zi su zi
Deulkkae


Periwinkle leaf (Catharanthus roseus) contains over 100 bioactive alkaloids, including vindolicine and vinblastine, which inhibit protein tyrosine phosphatase-1B and disrupt microtubule dynamics during cell division. These compounds demonstrate significant anticancer, antidiabetic, and neuroprotective effects through multiple molecular pathways.

- **Enhances memory, focus,**: and cognitive clarity through neuroprotective alkaloids that improve cerebral blood flow.
- **Regulates blood pressure**: and improves circulation, supporting overall cardiovascular health.
- **Strengthens immune defenses**: and combats infections through its antioxidant and antimicrobial compounds.
- **Reduces cellular damage**: and supports healthy aging by providing potent antioxidant protection.
- **Aids in blood**: sugar regulation and promotes energy metabolism, contributing to metabolic balance.
- **Supports emotional balance**: and mental well-being through adaptogenic effects on stress resilience.

The primary alkaloids vindolicine, vindolidine, and vindolinine enhance glucose uptake in pancreatic β-TC6 and muscle C2C12 cells by inhibiting protein tyrosine phosphatase-1B (PTP-1B), a key target for diabetes management. Dimeric alkaloids like vinblastine and vincristine bind directly to tubulin proteins, disrupting microtubule dynamics and preventing cell division during mitosis. Flavonoids including kaempferol and quercetin activate DNA repair proteins (XPC, XPA) and scavenge free radicals through DPPH and ORAC pathways.

Research consists primarily of in vitro and animal studies, with no large-scale human clinical trials reported. In laboratory studies, vindolicine demonstrated the strongest glucose uptake enhancement in pancreatic cells at 12.5-25 µg/mL concentrations. Dimeric alkaloids showed cytotoxic effects against MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells with IC50 values ranging from 0.73-10.67 µM. While vinblastine and vincristine are clinically approved chemotherapy drugs derived from this plant, standardized leaf extract efficacy in humans requires further investigation.

Catharanthus roseus
Madagascar periwinkle
Vinca rosea
Sadabahar
Nityakalyani
Old Maid


Persian Black Lemon, derived from dried lemons, is valued for concentrated bioactive compounds in its peel, including flavonoids, phenolics, and limonoids. These compounds primarily exert effects through potent antioxidant action, exemplified by DPPH free radical scavenging, contributing to its traditional health benefits.

- Supports digestive health by stimulating gastric secretions and easing bloating.
- Promotes detoxification through its rich citric acid and antioxidant profile.
- Provides anti-inflammatory benefits via its content of polyphenols and flavonoids.
- Enhances skin health by contributing to collagen formation and reducing oxidative stress.
- Modulates liver function, supporting natural detoxification pathways.

Persian Black Lemon's therapeutic actions are primarily mediated by a rich array of bioactive compounds, including flavonoids (like hesperidin and naringin), phenolics, and limonoids (such as limonin). These compounds exert significant antioxidant effects by scavenging free radicals via hydrogen atom donation, as demonstrated by DPPH activity, which mitigates oxidative stress. The essential oils and organic acids present also contribute to its traditional use in stimulating gastric secretions and modulating inflammatory responses.

Research on Persian Black Lemon's health benefits primarily highlights its high antioxidant content, which is implicated in promoting digestion and liver function. Preliminary studies, often in vitro or preclinical, suggest its bioactive compounds can modulate inflammation and support detoxification pathways, potentially enhancing skin health. While traditional use is widespread, robust human clinical trials detailing specific dosages, sample sizes, and quantified outcomes for these benefits are still emerging.

Citrus limon
Citrus aurantifolia
loomi
black lime
dried lime


Persian walnut (Juglans regia) contains bioactive compounds including chlorogenic acid, β-sitosterol, and α-linolenic acid that modulate inflammatory pathways and support cardiovascular health. Research demonstrates these compounds reduce TNF-α and IL-6 levels while activating antioxidant enzymes SOD and catalase through ROS scavenging mechanisms.

- **Enhances neuroplasticity and**: supports memory function through its omega-3 fatty acid content.
- **Lowers LDL cholesterol**: and improves vascular function, contributing to cardiovascular health.
- **Reduces oxidative stress**: and systemic inflammation via its rich polyphenol and vitamin E content.
- **Promotes a healthy**: gut microbiome, supporting digestion and immune function through its fiber and polyphenols.
- **Supports metabolic balance**: by regulating blood sugar and contributes to reproductive health.

Persian walnut compounds work through multiple molecular pathways including TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB inhibition to reduce inflammation and PI-3K/Akt-Nrf2 activation for neuroprotection. β-sitosterol (988-1224 μg per nut) decreases TNF-α and IL-6 production, while chlorogenic acid (1.1 mg) suppresses β-catenin/p-GSK3β signaling. Phytosterols like campesterol (32-48 μg) lower cholesterol by reducing intestinal absorption through mixed micelle interference.

Most evidence comes from preclinical studies in rodent models, with limited human clinical data available. One clinical study showed improved glycemic control in type 1 diabetes patients using walnut hydrosol, though specific quantified outcomes were not detailed. Preclinical research demonstrates that p-coumaric acid activates pancreatic GLUT-2 and protects β-cells in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Human pharmacokinetic data shows ferulic acid reaches peak plasma concentration 30 minutes after 5.15 mg/kg oral administration.

Juglans regia
English walnut
Common walnut
Carpathian walnut


Persimmon (Diospyros kaki) delivers potent antioxidant activity through polyphenols like epicatechin and EGCG-P adducts that bind reversibly to human serum proteins, enhancing bioavailability. These compounds terminate free radicals by donating hydrogen atoms and prevent LDL oxidation through mechanisms involving ROS inhibition.

- **Promotes digestive health**: and regularity through its high dietary fiber content, supporting a balanced gut microbiome.
- **Strengthens immune function**: and reduces inflammation due to its rich vitamin C content.
- **Delivers potent antioxidant**: protection via polyphenols, flavonoids, and carotenoids, neutralizing free radicals and promoting cellular health.
- **Supports eye health**: with high levels of vitamin A and beta-carotene, protecting against macular degeneration.
- **Enhances cardiovascular health**: by regulating blood pressure and improving circulation, attributed to potassium and antioxidants.
- **Improves skin elasticity**: and hydration through antioxidants and vitamins A and E, protecting against oxidative stress.
- **Contributes to metabolic**: balance and blood sugar regulation due to its fiber content and natural sugars.

Persimmon's polyphenols including epicatechin and epigallocatechin-3-O-gallate-phloroglucinol (EGCG-P) adducts bind reversibly to human serum albumin, α-β-globulin, and fibrinogen, modulating protein interactions for enhanced cellular delivery. Phenolic acids like ferulic acid and gallic acid act as free radical terminators by donating hydrogen atoms to peroxyl radicals, forming stable alkyl hydroperoxides and preventing lipid oxidation. Carotenoids including β-cryptoxanthin and lycopene prevent LDL oxidation while upregulating endogenous antioxidant defenses.

Evidence for persimmon's health effects comes primarily from in vitro and animal studies, with no detailed human clinical trials available. Laboratory studies show persimmon extract at 0.5 mg/ml concentration reduced oxidative stress-induced cell death in Caco-2/C2C12 cocultures and inhibited intracellular ROS formation. Immature persimmon extracts demonstrated higher antioxidant capacity (28.9 mg GAE/g total phenolic content, 167.6 μmol Trolox/g ABTS activity) compared to mature fruit (15.2 mg GAE/g, 114.7 μmol Trolox/g). While promising, human clinical evidence remains limited and further research is needed to confirm therapeutic applications.

Diospyros kaki L.
Japanese persimmon
Kaki
Sharon fruit


Peruvian Chicha de Jora is a traditional fermented corn beer that enhances gut health through its rich probiotic content, including lactic acid bacteria and yeasts. These beneficial microbes and their prebiotic byproducts like oligosaccharides and dextran improve microbiota balance, support digestion, and boost immune function.

- Enhances gut health by introducing probiotics through fermentation, improving microbiota balance and digestion.
- Supports digestive processes with enzymes that aid in nutrient breakdown and absorption.
- Boosts immune function through its rich content of probiotics and essential nutrients.
- Provides sustained energy and vitality from natural carbohydrates.
- Offers antioxidant protection from phenolic compounds derived from corn, combating oxidative stress.
- Supports hydration and replenishes electrolytes as a refreshing beverage.

Chicha de Jora's health benefits primarily stem from its probiotic microbial content, including lactic acid bacteria and yeasts, which directly contribute to a balanced gut microbiota. Furthermore, these microbes produce non-digestible oligosaccharides and extracellular polysaccharides like dextran, which act as prebiotics. These prebiotics nourish beneficial gut bacteria, promoting their growth and contributing to improved digestion, nutrient absorption, and immune system modulation.

Current scientific investigation into Chicha de Jora is in its early stages, primarily focusing on identifying and characterizing its diverse probiotic microbial content, such as *Lactobacillus* and *Leuconostoc* species. Research is also exploring the nutritional enhancements resulting from the fermentation of maize, particularly the generation of prebiotic compounds like non-digestible oligosaccharides and dextran. While promising, detailed human clinical trials evaluating specific health outcomes, dosages, and long-term effects are still needed to substantiate its traditional benefits comprehensively.


Peruvian Fermented Potato (Chuno) is rich in resistant starch, a prebiotic fiber that selectively nourishes beneficial gut bacteria. This process supports a healthy gut microbiome, enhancing nutrient absorption and promoting digestive regularity.

- Supports gut microbiome health by providing prebiotic resistant starch and beneficial bacteria from fermentation.
- Enhances nutrient bioavailability, concentrating essential minerals like potassium, magnesium, and calcium through freeze-drying.
- Promotes digestive regularity and efficiency due to its high content of resistant starch and dietary fiber.
- Modulates blood sugar levels by slowing glucose absorption and improving glycemic control.
- Provides antioxidant protection, with polyphenols and flavonoids neutralizing free radicals and reducing oxidative stress.
- Contributes to cardiovascular health by supporting healthy blood pressure and cholesterol levels through fiber and minerals.

Chuno's primary mechanism involves its high content of resistant starch, a type of fiber that resists digestion in the small intestine and ferments in the large intestine. This fermentation by colonic bacteria produces short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) like butyrate, which nourish colon cells, support gut barrier integrity, and exert anti-inflammatory effects. The traditional fermentation process also introduces beneficial microorganisms, further enhancing the gut microbiome's diversity and function.

While general research on resistant starch and fermented foods supports benefits for gut microbiota modulation and glycemic control, specific clinical trials exclusively on Peruvian Fermented Potato (Chuno) are limited. Studies on the components of Chuno, such as resistant starch, typically involve small to moderate sample sizes and demonstrate improvements in markers of gut health and insulin sensitivity. However, direct clinical evidence validating the comprehensive health benefits of Chuno as a whole food, particularly its unique processing, requires further dedicated investigation.

Solanum tuberosum
Chuño
Andean freeze-dried potato


Peruvian Maca Root (Lepidium meyenii) contains bioactive macamides and glucosinolates that modulate the HPA axis via serotoninergic pathways and cannabinoid receptors. The compound N-benzylhexadecanamide (NBH) inhibits CYP1A2 enzyme to preserve DHEA for testosterone synthesis while supporting hormonal balance.

- Modulates hormonal balance by influencing the endocrine system.
- Enhances energy levels and stamina through its adaptogenic compounds.
- Improves mental clarity and focus by supporting neurological function.
- Reduces physiological stress responses, contributing to overall resilience.
- Supports reproductive health and fertility, particularly in traditional applications.
- Provides antioxidant protection against cellular damage from free radicals.

Macamides like N-benzylhexadecanamide (NBH) inhibit CYP1A2 enzyme to preserve DHEA for testosterone synthesis, while macamide B inhibits fatty acid amide hydrolase to boost anandamide levels. Glucosinolates hydrolyze via myrosinase enzyme to form isothiocyanates with immunoregulatory effects. The compounds modulate the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis through serotoninergic pathways and cannabinoid receptor interactions.

Current evidence relies primarily on preclinical studies and traditional use data rather than large-scale human clinical trials. Preclinical research shows fermentation increases total saponin content from 30.9 mg to 65.0 mg OAE/g and improves antioxidant activity by 19.85%. Nine studies confirm immunomodulatory and antitumor effects in cell cultures, with 23% enhanced neuroprotection demonstrated in HT-22 neuronal cells. While extensive traditional use supports fertility and energy benefits, robust randomized controlled trials with quantified human outcomes are needed.


Peruvian Purple Corn (Zea mays L.) is rich in anthocyanins and phenolic compounds, providing potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory benefits. These bioactive compounds primarily work by scavenging free radicals and inhibiting lipid peroxidation to combat cellular damage.

- Combats oxidative stress and reduces inflammation through its high concentration of anthocyanins and flavonoids.
- Supports cardiovascular health by regulating blood pressure and improving circulation via potassium and polyphenols.
- Modulates blood sugar levels and improves insulin sensitivity due to its fiber and polyphenol content.
- Enhances immune function and reduces inflammation through its rich vitamin C and bioactive compounds.
- Promotes digestive health and nourishes beneficial gut bacteria with its dietary fiber.
- Protects against neurodegeneration and enhances brain function through its anthocyanin content.
- Supports collagen production and reduces free radical damage, promoting healthy skin.

Peruvian Purple Corn exerts its benefits primarily through its high concentration of anthocyanins, particularly cyanidin-3-glucoside (C3G), and phenolic acids. These compounds act as potent antioxidants, directly scavenging free radicals (e.g., DPPH, ABTS) and inhibiting lipid peroxidation, thereby reducing oxidative stress. Additionally, they modulate inflammatory pathways, contributing to overall cellular protection and health.

Modern research, including extensive in vitro and animal studies, consistently supports Peruvian Purple Corn's antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and cardiovascular protective effects, attributing them largely to its high anthocyanin content. Preliminary human studies further suggest its potential in regulating blood sugar levels and improving insulin sensitivity, indicating benefits for metabolic health. While these findings are promising, larger-scale human clinical trials are needed to fully establish its efficacy and optimal dosage in diverse populations.


Peruvian White Quinoa is rich in bound phenolics like quercetin and kaempferol, along with bioactive peptides and alpha-tocopherol. These compounds exert antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, contributing to its broad health benefits.

- Provides a complete source of plant-based protein, supplying all nine essential amino acids for muscle repair and metabolic function.
- Promotes digestive health through high dietary fiber content, supporting gut motility and regularity.
- Supports cardiovascular health by delivering magnesium, potassium, and heart-healthy fats for blood pressure regulation.
- Boosts immune function with essential vitamins and minerals, including B vitamins and magnesium.
- Protects against oxidative stress with a rich profile of antioxidants, including flavonoids and phenolic acids.

White quinoa's health benefits are largely attributed to bound phenolics (quercetin, kaempferol), phenolic acids, and bioactive peptides. Quercetin and kaempferol exert antioxidant activity by scavenging free radicals and modulating anti-inflammatory pathways. Bioactive peptides like lunasin demonstrate potential anti-carcinogenic and anti-inflammatory effects, while polysaccharides such as SQAP-2 may contribute to immunomodulation.

Extensive nutritional research confirms quinoa's complete amino acid profile, high fiber content, and rich micronutrient composition. Studies, primarily observational and preclinical, highlight its role in supporting cardiovascular health, glycemic control, and digestive function through its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory compounds. While general quinoa consumption is linked to various health benefits, specific large-scale clinical trials on Peruvian white quinoa's isolated effects remain an area for further investigation.


Petasites hybridus (butterbur) is a European perennial herb containing petasins and isopetasins that inhibit leukotriene synthesis and calcium channel activity. Clinical studies demonstrate its effectiveness in reducing migraine frequency by up to 60% and alleviating allergic rhinitis symptoms.

• Migraine prevention: Reduces migraine frequency by up to 60% (Strong evidence - multiple RCTs, PMIDs: 11020030, 11410074)
• Allergic rhinitis relief: Significantly reduces nasal inflammatory mediators within 5 days (Moderate evidence - clinical studies, PMID: 12188041)
• Asthma symptom improvement: Decreases attack frequency and severity, improves lung function (Moderate evidence - open trial with 80 subjects, PMID: 15005644)
• Anti-inflammatory effects: Inhibits leukotriene synthesis and histamine production (Moderate evidence - clinical and in vitro data)
• Potential anticancer activity: Triggers apoptosis in breast cancer cells in vitro (Preliminary evidence - laboratory study only, PMID: 37395030)

Butterbur's active compounds petasin and isopetasin inhibit 5-lipoxygenase and cyclooxygenase enzymes, reducing leukotriene and prostaglandin synthesis. These sesquiterpenes also block calcium channels in vascular smooth muscle, preventing vasodilation associated with migraine headaches. The anti-inflammatory effects result from decreased production of inflammatory mediators including histamine and cytokines.

Multiple randomized controlled trials demonstrate butterbur's efficacy for migraine prevention, with 75mg twice daily reducing attack frequency by 48-60% over 3-4 months. A clinical study of 125 patients showed significant improvement in allergic rhinitis symptoms within 5 days, with reduced nasal inflammatory mediators. Limited evidence suggests benefits for asthma, though more rigorous trials are needed. Most studies used standardized PA-free (pyrrolizidine alkaloid-free) extracts.

Petasites hybridus
butterbur
bog rhubarb
blatterdock
capdockin
flapperdock
umbrella plant
purple butterbur


Peumo fruit (Cryptocarya alba) is an endemic Chilean drupe rich in monoterpenes (α-pinene, β-pinene, 1,8-cineole) and sesquiterpenes whose essential oils demonstrate confirmed antioxidant, antibacterial (including anti-MRSA), and antitumoral activities (PMID 33260521; PMID 32722434). A 2017 study using Drosophila melanogaster further validated Cryptocarya alba's antimutagenic potential, supporting its traditional use as a protective phytomedicine (PMID 28304234).

- Supports cardiovascular health by improving circulation and reducing oxidative stress through its rich polyphenol content.
- Enhances immune function via potent antimicrobial and antiviral phytochemicals and high vitamin C.
- Reduces systemic inflammation through bioactive compounds that modulate inflammatory pathways.
- Promotes digestive wellness by providing prebiotic fiber and enzymatic activity that nourish gut microbiota.
- Regulates blood sugar levels by optimizing insulin sensitivity and metabolic efficiency.
- Provides neuroprotective benefits through antioxidant activity that supports cognitive function.
- Supports skin vitality by delivering vitamins and antioxidants that promote hydration and reduce signs of aging.

The essential oils of Cryptocarya alba are dominated by monoterpenes such as α-pinene, β-pinene, and 1,8-cineole, which exert antioxidant activity by directly scavenging reactive oxygen species (ROS), chelating transition metals, and inhibiting lipid peroxidation via disruption of free-radical chain propagation (PMID 33260521). Antibacterial efficacy, including anti-MRSA activity, is attributed to the capacity of terpene and polyphenolic constituents to intercalate into bacterial lipid bilayers, increasing membrane permeability, disrupting proton motive force, and causing leakage of intracellular contents (PMID 32722434). Antitumoral effects are mediated by terpene-induced mitochondrial membrane depolarization, caspase-3/9 activation, and cell-cycle arrest at the G2/M checkpoint in cancer cell lines (PMID 33260521). The antimutagenic mechanism involves upregulation of phase II detoxification enzymes and direct electrophile scavenging by phenolic hydroxyl groups, reducing DNA adduct formation as demonstrated in the Drosophila SMART assay (PMID 28304234).

Scientific literature documents Peumo fruit's antioxidant and neuroprotective activities through laboratory studies, though specific clinical trial data with sample sizes and quantified outcomes are limited in current research. Studies have validated its traditional uses for immune modulation and gut microbiome support. The evidence base consists primarily of preclinical research rather than large-scale human trials. More controlled clinical studies are needed to establish definitive therapeutic dosages and efficacy parameters.

Cryptocarya alba
Chilean Peumo
Belloto del Norte
Peumo Blanco


Boldo (Peumus boldus) is a South American medicinal plant containing boldine alkaloids and phenolic compounds like gallic acid that demonstrate antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. The plant's essential oils and alkaloids show promise for digestive and liver support, though human clinical evidence remains limited.

• Antioxidant properties supported by in vitro studies showing activity from phenolic compounds including gallic acid and quercetin (preliminary evidence only)
• Antimicrobial effects demonstrated in laboratory studies attributed to essential oils and alkaloids (no human clinical data)
• Antifungal activity shown in in vitro research linked to boldine and other alkaloids (animal/lab studies only)
• Traditional use for digestive support and liver health in South American medicine (no clinical trials available)
• Anti-parasitic properties observed in laboratory studies due to alkaloid content (preliminary evidence only)

Boldo's primary bioactive compound boldine acts as an antioxidant by scavenging free radicals and protecting cellular membranes from lipid peroxidation. The phenolic compounds including gallic acid and quercetin contribute to antioxidant activity through electron donation mechanisms. Essential oils containing eucalyptol and camphor provide antimicrobial effects by disrupting bacterial cell membranes.

Current evidence for boldo is limited to in vitro laboratory studies demonstrating antioxidant activity from phenolic compounds. Antimicrobial effects have been shown in test-tube studies using essential oil extracts against various bacterial and fungal pathogens. No randomized controlled trials in humans have been conducted to validate traditional uses. The existing research consists primarily of preliminary laboratory investigations without clinical translation.

Peumus boldus
Chilean boldo
Boldea fragrans
Boldu
Boldina
South American boldo
Boldo-do-Chile


Phalsa (Grewia asiatica) contains concentrated anthocyanins including cyanidin-3-O-glucoside (8-14%) and malvidin-3-O-glucoside that provide potent antioxidant activity through DPPH and FRAP pathway inhibition. These compounds demonstrate significant free radical scavenging capacity and modulate endogenous antioxidant enzymes while exhibiting anti-inflammatory effects via SIRT1 activation.

- Strengthens immune defense through potent antimicrobial, antiviral, and antioxidant compounds.
- Enhances cardiovascular health by improving blood flow and reducing oxidative stress.
- Regulates blood sugar levels by promoting insulin sensitivity and metabolic efficiency.
- Nourishes gut microbiota and enhances digestive health with prebiotic fibers.
- Reduces systemic inflammation through bioactive compounds like flavonoids and phenolic acids.
- Supports cognitive longevity through neuroprotective antioxidant action.
- Promotes liver detoxification and supports skin health through enhanced collagen production.

Phalsa's anthocyanins, particularly cyanidin-3-O-glucoside and peonidin-3-O-glucoside, exert antioxidant effects by inhibiting DPPH, FRAP, and ABTS free radical markers while modulating endogenous antioxidant enzymes. The phenolic compounds activate SIRT1 pathways involved in metabolic homeostasis and inhibit lipid peroxidation through ROS modulation. Tannins (1.13-2.46% content) and triterpenoids contribute additional antimicrobial activity against Aspergillus species through phenolic fraction mechanisms.

Current evidence consists primarily of preclinical animal and in vitro studies rather than human clinical trials. In mouse studies, phalsa extract at 700 mg/kg body weight significantly decreased brain glutathione and lipid peroxidation levels while demonstrating radioprotective properties. Anticancer research showed methanolic extract increased life expectancy in mice with Ehrlich's ascites carcinoma and inhibited multiple cancer cell lines including K-562 leukemia and MCF-7 breast cancer cells. Clinical validation through human trials remains limited, representing a significant evidence gap for therapeutic applications.

Grewia asiatica
Phalsa fruit
Grewia
Asian phalsa
South Asian sherbet berry


Phellinus igniarius is a medicinal mushroom containing beta-glucans and phenolic compounds that modulate immune function and exhibit anti-cancer properties. Its polysaccharides enhance macrophage activity while its phenolic acids provide antioxidant protection against cellular damage.

- Supports immune system function by enhancing the activity of macrophages and T-cells, increasing the body's defense against pathogens. - Exhibits anti-cancer properties by inducing apoptosis in cancer cells, potentially reducing tumor growth. - Contains antioxidants that neutralize free radicals, protecting cells from oxidative stress and aging. - Regulates blood sugar levels by improving insulin sensitivity, which may aid in diabetes management. - Reduces inflammation through modulation of cytokine production, alleviating symptoms of chronic inflammatory diseases. - Promotes gut health by fostering beneficial gut bacteria, enhancing digestion and nutrient absorption. - Enhances cognitive function by protecting neurons from damage, potentially improving memory and focus.

Phellinus igniarius contains beta-glucans that bind to CR3 and Dectin-1 receptors on macrophages, activating complement receptor pathways and enhancing phagocytic activity. The mushroom's phenolic compounds, including protocatechuic acid and caffeic acid, scavenge reactive oxygen species through electron donation. Its polysaccharides also modulate T-cell proliferation by influencing cytokine production pathways including IL-2 and interferon-gamma.

Research on Phellinus igniarius is primarily limited to in vitro and animal studies, with few human clinical trials available. Laboratory studies demonstrate that extracts containing 20-40% beta-glucans can increase macrophage activation by 60-80% compared to controls. Animal studies using 200-500mg/kg doses showed enhanced immune responses and reduced tumor growth in cancer models. Human clinical evidence remains insufficient to establish therapeutic efficacy or optimal dosing protocols.

Phellinus igniarius
False Tinder Fungus
Fire Sponge
Willow Fire Fungus
Sang Huang
Meshimakobu
Tree Ear Bracket


Phellinus linteus extract is a medicinal mushroom supplement containing beta-glucans and polysaccharides that modulate immune function through T-cell activation and cytokine regulation. The extract demonstrates anti-cancer properties by inducing apoptosis in malignant cells while supporting natural killer cell activity.

- Immune Modulation: Activates immune pathways and increases cytokine production.
- Anti-Cancer Activity: Suppresses cancer cell proliferation and induces apoptosis through multiple mechanisms.
- Antioxidant Effects: Scavenges reactive oxygen species and protects cellular structures.
- Anti-Inflammatory Action: Inhibits inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α and IL-6. Additionally, the nutritional profile of Phellinus Linteus Extract includes - supplements: found in capsules, powders, and tinctures for immune, antioxidant, and anti-cancer support. For enhanced efficacy, Phellinus Linteus Extract can be combined with complementary ingredients. Hermetica Synergy Stack (Formulation Heuristic)
Role: Myco-adaptogenic base (immuno-metabolic support)
Intention: Immune & Inflammation
Primary Pairings: Turmeric (Curcuma longa); Ginger (Zingiber officinale); Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid); Spinach
Notes (from original entry): Synergy: pair with healthy fats (to support absorption of fat-soluble phytonutrients), vitamin C–rich fruits (antioxidant network support), and fermented foods (microbiome potentiation) for a balanced whole-food stack.

Phellinus linteus beta-glucans bind to complement receptor 3 (CR3) and Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) on immune cells, triggering NF-κB pathway activation and increasing TNF-α, IL-1β, and interferon-γ production. The polysaccharides enhance natural killer cell cytotoxicity against tumor cells through perforin and granzyme B release. Additionally, proteoglycans in the extract activate p53 tumor suppressor pathways, leading to cancer cell apoptosis.

Human studies on Phellinus linteus are limited, with most research conducted in animal models and cell cultures. A small clinical trial with 24 cancer patients showed improved immune markers after 12 weeks of supplementation at 3g daily. Laboratory studies demonstrate significant anti-proliferative effects against various cancer cell lines, with IC50 values ranging from 50-200 μg/mL. While preclinical evidence is promising, larger randomized controlled trials are needed to establish clinical efficacy in humans.

Phellinus linteus
Meshima
Meshimakobu
Sanghuang
PL
Black Hoof Mushroom
Wild Mulberry Mushroom


Phellinus linteus is a medicinal mushroom containing bioactive polysaccharides and proteoglycans that modulate immune function through macrophage activation. Its primary mechanism involves stimulating immune cell activity while exhibiting anti-tumor and cardiovascular protective effects.

- Enhances immune function by stimulating macrophage activity, strengthening the body's defense. - Exhibits anti-cancer properties by inhibiting tumor growth, contributing to cancer prevention. - Supports cardiovascular health by reducing cholesterol levels, promoting heart wellness. - Reduces inflammation by modulating cytokine production, aiding in chronic disease management. - Supports liver health by enhancing detoxification processes, promoting overall liver function. - Improves skin health by promoting collagen production, leading to youthful, radiant skin. - Boosts energy levels by improving cellular metabolism, reducing fatigue.

Phellinus linteus contains bioactive β-glucans and proteoglycans that activate macrophages through toll-like receptor binding, enhancing immune surveillance. The mushroom's polysaccharides stimulate cytokine production including interleukin-1β and tumor necrosis factor-α, while its compounds inhibit HMG-CoA reductase to reduce cholesterol synthesis.

Limited human studies have shown immune-enhancing effects, with one 12-week trial in 42 participants demonstrating increased natural killer cell activity by 23%. Animal studies indicate potential anti-tumor effects, with some showing 40-60% tumor growth inhibition in mouse models. Cardiovascular benefits are primarily supported by in vitro studies showing cholesterol-lowering mechanisms. More robust human clinical trials are needed to confirm therapeutic efficacy.

Phellinus linteus
Meshima
Song Gen
Korean Brown Bracket
Mesima
Sang-hwang
Tree Tongue Mushroom
Black Hoof Fungus


Phellinus linteus spore oil is extracted from the spores of the mushima mushroom, containing concentrated beta-glucans and triterpenes. It primarily works by modulating immune cell activity and providing potent antioxidant protection through free radical scavenging.

- Supports immune system health by enhancing macrophage activity, crucial for pathogen defense. Studies show a 30% increase in immune response. - Provides antioxidant protection by neutralizing free radicals, reducing oxidative stress and cellular damage. - May support liver health by promoting detoxification processes, aiding in toxin removal. - Promotes cardiovascular health by lowering cholesterol and improving blood vessel function, reducing heart disease risk. - Enhances skin health by boosting collagen production, leading to improved elasticity and appearance. - Supports metabolic health by regulating blood sugar levels, reducing diabetes risk. - May improve cognitive function by enhancing neuroprotective pathways, supporting brain health.

The beta-glucans in Phellinus linteus spore oil bind to dectin-1 receptors on macrophages and dendritic cells, triggering immune activation pathways. Triterpene compounds provide hepatoprotective effects by enhancing glutathione S-transferase activity and reducing lipid peroxidation. The oil's polyphenolic compounds scavenge reactive oxygen species through electron donation mechanisms.

Limited human studies have examined Phellinus linteus spore oil specifically, with most research conducted on whole mushroom extracts. One small study (n=45) showed 30% improvement in immune markers after 8 weeks of supplementation. Animal studies demonstrate hepatoprotective effects at doses of 200-400mg/kg body weight. More robust clinical trials are needed to establish definitive therapeutic benefits in humans.

Phellinus linteus
Meshima
Mesima
Sanghuang
Song Gen
Black Hoof Mushroom
Korean Meshima


Phenibut (β-phenyl-GABA) is a synthetic derivative of GABA that crosses the blood-brain barrier to enhance GABAergic neurotransmission. It acts primarily on GABA-B receptors and voltage-gated calcium channels to produce anxiolytic and nootropic effects.

- Reduces anxiety by mimicking GABA, which calms the nervous system and promotes relaxation. This is beneficial for stress management. - Enhances cognitive function by improving communication between neurons, leading to better memory and concentration. This supports mental performance. - Improves sleep quality by modulating neurotransmitter activity, which helps regulate sleep cycles. This is ideal for those with insomnia. - Supports mood stabilization by balancing dopamine levels, which can alleviate mood swings. This is crucial for emotional health. - Increases sociability by reducing social anxiety, which can enhance interpersonal interactions. This is beneficial for social settings. - Provides neuroprotection by reducing oxidative stress, which helps preserve brain health. This is important for long-term cognitive resilience. - Enhances physical performance by reducing fatigue, which allows for prolonged exercise and activity. This is ideal for athletes and active individuals.

Phenibut binds to GABA-B receptors with high affinity, increasing inhibitory neurotransmission in the central nervous system. It also blocks voltage-gated calcium channels, particularly α2δ subunits, reducing excitatory neurotransmitter release. The phenyl group enables blood-brain barrier penetration, unlike natural GABA.

Human studies on phenibut are limited, with most research conducted in Russia and Eastern Europe. Small clinical trials (20-50 participants) suggest anxiolytic effects at 250-750mg daily doses. Animal studies demonstrate improved stress tolerance and cognitive performance, but large-scale randomized controlled trials are lacking. Evidence quality remains moderate due to limited Western research and potential publication bias.

β-Phenyl-γ-aminobutyric acid
4-amino-3-phenylbutyric acid
Noofen
Fenibut
Citrocard
PhGABA
β-Phenyl-GABA


Phenolic acids from oats, particularly ferulic and p-coumaric acids, are potent antioxidants that scavenge reactive oxygen and nitrogen species and chelate transition minerals, thereby protecting cellular health. These compounds are largely found in bound forms within the oat bran.

- Provide potent antioxidant protection by neutralizing free radicals and reducing oxidative stress, safeguarding cellular health.
- Support cardiovascular health by helping to lower LDL cholesterol and enhancing bile acid excretion, improving blood lipid profiles.
- Exert anti-inflammatory effects, which can support joint health and modulate chronic inflammatory conditions.
- Offer skin health benefits, with ferulic acid providing anti-aging and UV-protective effects.
- Enhance gut health through synergy with dietary fiber, promoting bowel regularity and nourishing beneficial gut flora.

Phenolic acids from oats, predominantly ferulic and p-coumaric acids, exert their antioxidant effects by directly scavenging reactive oxygen and nitrogen species and chelating transition metals, significantly reducing oxidative stress. They also contribute to cardiovascular health by influencing bile acid excretion and potentially modulating cholesterol synthesis pathways. Furthermore, these compounds, often in their bound forms, exhibit anti-inflammatory properties by modulating various cellular signaling pathways.

Extensive scientific research, including human clinical trials, supports the health benefits of phenolic acids from oats. Studies consistently demonstrate their potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, contributing to cellular protection and reduced systemic inflammation. Furthermore, clinical evidence indicates their significant role in improving cardiovascular health by helping to lower LDL cholesterol and enhancing beneficial blood lipid profiles. While specific study designs and sample sizes vary, outcomes generally support their contribution to overall health.

Avena sativa phenolic acids
Oat phenolics
Ferulic acid (from oats)
p-Coumaric acid (from oats)


Phenolic acids from strawberries, primarily p-coumaric acid derivatives, ellagic acid, and ellagitannins, are potent antioxidants. These compounds function by scavenging reactive oxygen species (ROS) and donating protons/electrons, thereby protecting cells from oxidative damage.

- Antioxidant Protection: Neutralizes free radicals and reduces oxidative stress, protecting cells and supporting healthy aging.
- Anti-Inflammatory Effects: Inhibits inflammatory signaling pathways, benefiting joint, cardiovascular, and metabolic health.
- Cardiovascular Health: Improves vascular function, reduces LDL cholesterol oxidation, and supports healthy blood pressure.
- Skin Health: Promotes collagen synthesis and defends against UV-induced damage.
- Cancer Prevention: Exhibits anti-carcinogenic activity by modulating gene expression and reducing DNA damage.
- Immune Support: Enhances immune function through cellular protection and inflammation reduction.
- Metabolic Health: Regulates blood sugar levels and supports insulin sensitivity.

Strawberry phenolic acids, including ellagic acid, p-coumaric acid derivatives, and ellagitannins, exert their effects primarily through potent reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging via proton/electron donation and metal ion chelation. These compounds also modulate redox-sensitive signaling pathways, such as activating the Nrf2 pathway to enhance endogenous antioxidant defenses. Furthermore, they can inhibit pro-inflammatory mediators like COX-2, iNOS, and NF-κB, contributing to their anti-inflammatory properties.

Clinical studies, including human trials, support the significant antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects attributed to strawberry-derived phenolic acids. Research indicates that consuming strawberries or their extracts can improve markers of cardiovascular health, such as reduced LDL oxidation and enhanced endothelial function. Additionally, studies suggest benefits for glycemic control, though specific sample sizes and detailed methodological information on isolated phenolic acid interventions often vary. The evidence collectively highlights their role in cellular protection and systemic health benefits.

Fragaria × ananassa phenolic acids
Ellagic acid
p-Coumaric acid derivatives
Ellagitannins
Strawberry polyphenols


Phenylalanine is an essential aromatic amino acid that serves as a precursor for L-tyrosine, which then converts to critical neurotransmitters like dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine. This metabolic pathway is fundamental for regulating mood, cognitive function, and supporting protein synthesis.

- Supports protein synthesis, aiding the formation of structural and enzymatic proteins vital for tissue repair and muscle development.
- Fuels neurotransmitter production by converting into tyrosine, then into dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine to regulate mood, alertness, and stress response.
- Enhances brain function, including memory, attention, and executive function, by fueling key neurochemical pathways.
- Modulates pain perception by influencing endogenous opioid systems.
- Aids emotional equilibrium by supporting dopamine-related signaling for mood support.
- Contributes to melanin production, supporting skin pigmentation and photoprotection.

Phenylalanine (Phe) acts as a biochemical precursor in the human body, converting to L-tyrosine through the action of the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase. L-tyrosine is subsequently metabolized into L-DOPA, which further yields important catecholamine neurotransmitters such as dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine, crucial for regulating mood, alertness, and stress response. Additionally, L-DOPA is a precursor in the synthesis of melanin.

Research published in journals such as Neuroscience Letters, Journal of Affective Disorders, and Clinical Nutrition Journal supports phenylalanine's roles in neurotransmitter synthesis, cognitive function, and mood regulation. These studies, including observational and smaller intervention trials, often investigate its impact on attention, memory, and depressive symptoms, particularly when used as a precursor for catecholamines. While evidence supports its biochemical role, larger-scale clinical trials are needed to fully establish therapeutic efficacy for specific conditions.


Phenylpiracetam is a synthetic racetam nootropic that modulates AMPA receptors and increases dopamine, acetylcholine, and norepinephrine levels. It enhances cognitive performance and physical endurance through improved synaptic plasticity and cellular ATP production.

- Boosts cognitive performance by enhancing synaptic plasticity, leading to improved memory and learning. This results in quicker information processing and recall. - Enhances physical endurance by increasing ATP production, the energy currency of cells. This provides sustained energy during physical and mental exertion. - Increases resilience to stress by modulating the stress hormone cortisol, leading to improved mood and reduced anxiety. This helps maintain mental clarity under pressure. - Supports neuroprotection by reducing oxidative damage and inflammation in brain cells. This protective effect may contribute to long-term brain health. - Improves mood and motivation by influencing dopamine and serotonin pathways, which are critical for emotional regulation. This can lead to increased productivity and well-being. - Enhances sensory perception by modulating NMDA receptors, which play a role in sensory processing. This can result in heightened awareness and sharper senses. - Increases wakefulness and alertness by stimulating the central nervous system, leading to reduced fatigue and improved focus.

Phenylpiracetam acts as a positive allosteric modulator of AMPA receptors, enhancing glutamatergic neurotransmission and synaptic plasticity. It increases dopamine, acetylcholine, and norepinephrine levels while inhibiting their reuptake. The compound also enhances mitochondrial function and ATP synthesis, contributing to improved cellular energy metabolism.

Human studies on phenylpiracetam are limited, with most research conducted in Russian populations. A study of 400 stroke patients showed cognitive improvements over 12 weeks of treatment. Small-scale trials in healthy adults demonstrated enhanced working memory and reduced mental fatigue at doses of 100-200mg daily. The compound was banned by WADA due to performance-enhancing effects, though comprehensive athletic performance studies remain limited.


Philippine Pili Nut (Canarium ovatum) is rich in cyclic triterpenoids, phytosterols, phenolics, and anthocyanins, which contribute to its antioxidant and antibacterial properties. These compounds exert effects by disrupting bacterial cell integrity, scavenging free radicals, and supporting cardiovascular health through monounsaturated fats.

- Supports cardiovascular health by improving cholesterol levels and reducing inflammation, attributed to its rich monounsaturated fats and omega-9 fatty acids.
- Provides robust antioxidant support through its content of vitamin E, polyphenols, and carotenoids, combating oxidative stress.
- Promotes digestive health by supporting gut motility and nourishing beneficial gut microbiota with its dietary fiber.
- Contributes to sustained energy and vitality through its dense profile of magnesium, protein, and healthy fats.
- Enhances skin and hair health by promoting collagen production and improving elasticity, supported by antioxidants and vitamin E.
- Supports bone density and strength with its rich content of calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus.
- Boosts immune defenses and reduces systemic inflammation through its bioactive compounds.

The pulp oil extract of Pili Nut contains cyclic triterpenoids like α- and β-amyrin, and phytosterols such as β-sitosterol, which disrupt bacterial cell division and destabilize membrane integrity by targeting cardiolipin domains. Additionally, the exocarp and pigment extracts are rich in phenolics, flavonoids, and anthocyanins that provide robust radical scavenging activity against oxidative stress. Its monounsaturated fats and omega-9 fatty acids further support cardiovascular health by modulating cholesterol levels and reducing systemic inflammation.

Preliminary *in vitro* and mechanistic studies highlight the potential of Philippine Pili Nut extracts in providing antioxidant and antibacterial protection. Research identifies its rich profile of monounsaturated fats, vitamin E, polyphenols, cyclic triterpenoids, and phytosterols as key contributors to these effects, with observed actions against bacterial growth and oxidative stress. While existing findings support its traditional uses and provide a basis for health claims like cardiovascular support and skin vitality, further targeted human clinical trials are needed to fully establish efficacy and optimal dosages in specific conditions. These early studies primarily focus on compound identification and their specific biological activities rather than large-scale clinical outcomes.