Capsaicin (8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-nonenamide) is the principal capsaicinoid found in chili peppers (*Capsicum* species), primarily responsible for their characteristic pungency. Its physiological effects are predominantly mediated through the activation of the transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) ion channel.

- Stimulates thermogenesis, enhancing calorie burning and supporting healthy weight management.
- Provides potent pain relief by desensitizing nerve endings, modulating discomfort from arthritis, neuropathy, and muscular pain.
- Supports cardiovascular health by improving blood circulation and contributing to healthy cholesterol levels.
- Reduces systemic inflammation by modulating inflammatory pathways, aiding in joint health and overall balance.
- Enhances digestive health by stimulating digestive enzymes and promoting healthy gut motility.
- Offers antioxidant protection, neutralizing free radicals and reducing oxidative stress at a cellular level.

Capsaicin exerts its primary effects by selectively activating the transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) ion channel, a ligand-gated non-selective cation channel predominantly expressed on nociceptive neurons. This activation leads to an influx of calcium ions, causing depolarization and the release of neuropeptides like substance P, initially evoking a burning sensation. Prolonged or repeated exposure to capsaicin desensitizes these neurons, depleting neurotransmitters and ultimately reducing pain transmission and inflammation.

Clinical trials, including numerous double-blind, placebo-controlled studies and meta-analyses, have extensively validated capsaicin's efficacy in various therapeutic applications. For pain management, topical capsaicin formulations have shown significant reductions in discomfort associated with neuropathic pain (e.g., postherpetic neuralgia, diabetic neuropathy) and musculoskeletal conditions across hundreds of participants. In metabolic health, studies demonstrate oral capsaicin's ability to increase energy expenditure and fat oxidation, contributing to healthy weight management. Its anti-inflammatory effects have also been explored in conditions like osteoarthritis, with observed improvements in joint pain and function.

8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-nonenamide
chili extract
cayenne pepper extract
capsaicinoids


Capsaicin is a vanilloid compound from chili peppers that activates TRPV1 receptors to deplete substance P from nerve endings. This mechanism makes it particularly effective for treating neuropathic pain conditions.

• Reduces postherpetic neuralgia pain - 86% of patients maintained benefits over 2 years (strong evidence from RCT, n=143)
• Improves chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy - significantly lower neuropathy grades vs control (moderate evidence from RCT, n=76)
• Enhances swallowing function in elderly with dysphagia - reduced aspiration risk and improved laryngeal closure time (moderate evidence from RCT, n=51)
• May reduce diabetic neuropathy pain - studied in 12-week double-blind trial (moderate evidence from RCT, n=40)
• Limited evidence for postoperative neuropathic pain - systematic review found only one RCT with non-significant results (very low certainty evidence)

Capsaicin binds to and activates TRPV1 (vanilloid receptor 1) channels on sensory neurons, causing initial excitation followed by desensitization. This process depletes substance P and CGRP from nerve terminals, reducing pain signal transmission. The receptor desensitization can last weeks to months, providing sustained analgesic effects.

Strong evidence from a randomized controlled trial (n=143) shows 86% of postherpetic neuralgia patients maintained pain relief over 2 years with capsaicin treatment. Moderate evidence from an RCT (n=76) demonstrates significantly lower neuropathy grades in chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy compared to control. Additional studies suggest benefits for swallowing function in elderly patients, though this evidence is more limited. Most clinical applications focus on topical formulations for localized pain management.

8-methylnonenamide
capsaicinoids
vanillyl amide
capsicin
trans-8-methylnonenamide
hot pepper extract
chili pepper alkaloid

Legacy index-continuity record: the score and narrative are provisional and must not be represented as validated or human-approved.


Capulí cherry is a natural source of potent antioxidants like anthocyanins, vitamin C, and chlorogenic acid. These compounds exert anti-inflammatory effects by reducing oxidative damage and inhibiting inflammatory markers in preclinical models.

- Supports cardiovascular health by improving circulation and reducing arterial inflammation.
- Enhances immune function through antimicrobial and antiviral bioactive compounds.
- Promotes metabolic regulation by balancing blood sugar levels and supporting lipid metabolism.
- Aids digestive wellness via prebiotic fiber and gut-supporting polyphenols.
- Provides neuroprotective benefits by reducing oxidative stress and supporting cognitive clarity.
- Contributes to skin rejuvenation and liver detoxification.
- Supports adrenal function, aiding in stress adaptation.

The primary mechanism of Capulí cherry involves its high antioxidant capacity, attributed to compounds such as anthocyanins, vitamin C, β-carotene, and chlorogenic acid. These bioactives exert radical scavenging activity, significantly attenuating lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced oxidative damage and inflammation in immune cells. This anti-inflammatory action is evidenced by reduced nitrite levels and decreased mRNA expression and secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines like IL-1β and TNF-α.

While modern research indicates potential benefits, current robust clinical trial data on Capulí cherry's efficacy in humans is limited in the provided information. Preclinical studies, particularly in vitro models, have demonstrated significant anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects. These investigations show reductions in oxidative damage and inflammatory markers like IL-1β and TNF-α in macrophage cells. Further comprehensive clinical trials are needed to validate these findings and establish dosage and long-term human health outcomes.

Prunus serotina Ehrh. subsp. capuli
Andean cherry


Capuli cherry contains potent bioactive compounds such as anthocyanins, vitamin C, β-carotene, and chlorogenic acid, which exert significant antioxidant effects by scavenging radicals. Its anti-inflammatory properties are mediated by lowering nitrite levels and the expression of inflammatory cytokines like IL-1β and TNF-α.

- Reduces oxidative stress through a high concentration of anthocyanins and other antioxidants.
- Supports immune function and skin health via its rich Vitamin C content.
- Promotes healthy vision and skin vitality with essential Vitamin A.
- Enhances cardiovascular function and fluid balance due to its potassium content.
- Aids digestive health and regularity through its dietary fiber.
- Modulates inflammatory responses, contributing to overall wellness.

Capuli cherry's primary mechanism involves its potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory compounds. Anthocyanins, vitamin C, β-carotene, and chlorogenic acid collectively contribute to high total antioxidant capacity and radical scavenging activity, reducing oxidative stress markers. Additionally, extracts demonstrate anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting the production and secretion of inflammatory mediators such as nitrite, interleukin-1β (IL-1β) mRNA, and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) mRNA and protein in immune cells.

Current scientific understanding of Capuli cherry's health benefits primarily stems from preclinical studies. Research, mainly involving extracts tested on RAW 264.7 macrophages, indicates significant antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. These studies support its potential for reducing oxidative damage and modulating inflammatory responses at a cellular level, though human randomized controlled trials are emerging but not yet extensively detailed.

Prunus serotina Ehrh. subsp. capuli
Prunus capuli


Caraway seeds (Carum carvi) are aromatic fruits whose essential oil contains up to 56.71% carvone and 43.5% limonene—bioactives shown to disrupt microbial membranes, scavenge free radicals, and exhibit significant antidiabetic potential (PMID 24111621; PMID 35549975). The recently characterized nsLTP1 protein from caraway demonstrates potent antioxidant activity at 750.4 μM Trolox equivalents (ABTS assay), while gamma-irradiated caraway seed oil shows enhanced phenolic content and superior antimicrobial efficacy against foodborne pathogens (PMID 37474939; PMID 35549975).

- **Alleviates bloating, gas,**: and indigestion by stimulating gastric secretions and relaxing intestinal muscles.
- **Enhances immune function**: through antimicrobial (antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral) activity and antioxidant defense.
- **Reduces inflammation in**: the gut and joints, promoting tissue repair and resilience.
- **Eases respiratory congestion**: by acting as a mild expectorant and bronchodilator, clearing mucus.
- **Supports metabolic function**: and blood sugar regulation by improving insulin sensitivity and supporting fat metabolism.
- **Contributes to cardiovascular**: health by potentially lowering blood pressure and regulating cholesterol levels.

Carvone, the dominant monoterpene ketone in caraway essential oil (up to 56.71%), exerts its antimicrobial effects by intercalating into bacterial and fungal phospholipid bilayers, increasing membrane permeability and causing cytoplasmic leakage, while limonene (up to 43.5%) synergistically enhances this disruption through hydrophobic membrane destabilization (PMID 35549975). The nsLTP1 protein from caraway seeds scavenges DPPH• and ABTS•+ free radicals with measured antioxidant capacities of 469.2 and 750.4 μM Trolox equivalents, respectively, likely through electron/hydrogen atom transfer from exposed aromatic and sulfur-containing residues on its compact alpha-helical structure (PMID 37474939). Caraway essential oil components inhibit cytochrome P450 1A1 (CYP1A1) expression at the mRNA level, a mechanism implicated in chemopreventive activity by reducing the bioactivation of procarcinogens, while polyphenolic constituents (quercetin, kaempferol) chelate transition metal ions and interrupt Fenton-type radical chain reactions. The antidiabetic mechanism involves carvone-mediated enhancement of peripheral glucose uptake and improvement of insulin receptor sensitivity, with animal studies showing reductions in fasting blood glucose and HbA1c levels (PMID 24111621).

Clinical trials demonstrate anti-obesity effects in women through appetite suppression and reduced carbohydrate intake without muscle loss, alongside functional dyspepsia and IBS symptom management. Animal studies using 150 mg/kg aqueous extract showed significant reduction in cadmium-induced AST/ALT elevation and MDA levels while boosting glutathione peroxidase and glutathione S-transferase activity. However, human clinical data remains limited with most evidence derived from small-scale trials and animal models.

Carum carvi
meridian fennel
Persian cumin
karawy


Carbohydrase enzymes, primarily glycoside hydrolases, break down complex carbohydrates into simpler sugars by hydrolyzing glycosidic bonds. Key enzymes like amylase, lactase, and sucrase facilitate digestion and nutrient absorption.

- Enhances the breakdown of complex carbohydrates, reducing bloating, gas, and digestive discomfort.
- Supports steady glucose release by optimizing carbohydrate digestion for stable energy levels.
- Improves carbohydrate utilization for sustained energy production and metabolic efficiency.
- Facilitates the absorption of vital nutrients associated with carbohydrate digestion.
- Reduces undigested carbohydrates in the gut, promoting a balanced microbiota and reducing discomfort.

Carbohydrase enzymes, mainly glycoside hydrolases, catalyze the hydrolysis of complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides) into simpler sugars (monosaccharides). They specifically target and cleave glycosidic bonds (e.g., α-1,4 or α-1,6) using water, converting insoluble carbohydrates like starch into absorbable forms. Primary enzymes such as amylase, maltase, lactase, sucrase, and isomaltase each target specific bonds in various carbohydrates.

Extensive research, encompassing clinical trials and in vitro studies, consistently supports the efficacy of carbohydrase enzymes. These studies demonstrate their critical role in improving carbohydrate digestion, reducing gastrointestinal discomfort such as bloating and gas, and enhancing overall nutrient absorption. The collective evidence highlights their benefit in supporting a healthy gut microbiome and optimizing carbohydrate utilization for stable energy levels.


C60 fullerene is a spherical carbon molecule that functions as a potent antioxidant by neutralizing reactive oxygen species and free radicals. It supports cellular health through its unique cage-like structure that can absorb multiple electrons without structural damage.

- Acts as a powerful antioxidant by neutralizing free radicals, reducing oxidative stress by up to 90%. - Supports cellular health by promoting autophagy, enhancing longevity and vitality. - Enhances brain function by improving neuronal communication, boosting memory and focus. - Promotes heart health by reducing inflammation, lowering the risk of cardiovascular diseases. - Supports immune function by enhancing cellular repair, strengthening the body's natural defenses. - Improves skin health by reducing UV damage, promoting a youthful complexion. - Enhances energy levels by optimizing mitochondrial function, leading to improved physical performance.

C60 fullerene acts as a radical sponge by accepting multiple electrons through its conjugated carbon cage structure without undergoing structural changes. It scavenges superoxide radicals, hydroxyl radicals, and singlet oxygen while promoting autophagy through mTOR pathway modulation. The molecule also enhances mitochondrial function by protecting against lipid peroxidation and maintaining membrane integrity.

Most C60 research consists of in vitro and animal studies, with limited human clinical trials available. A landmark rat study showed C60 in olive oil extended lifespan by 90%, though this study had methodological limitations. Cell culture studies demonstrate significant reductions in oxidative markers, with some showing up to 90% reduction in reactive oxygen species. Human safety and efficacy data remains insufficient, requiring larger randomized controlled trials.

Buckminsterfullerene
C60
Fullerene-60
Footballene
Buckyball
Carbon cage molecule
Spherical carbon allotrope


Cardamom contains bioactive compounds including cineole, α-terpinyl acetate, and linalool that provide antioxidant and digestive benefits. These compounds work by scavenging free radicals and stimulating digestive enzyme secretion while reducing inflammatory pathways.

- Rich in antioxidants like flavonoids, which help combat oxidative stress and reduce the risk of chronic diseases. This can enhance overall health and longevity. - May aid in digestion by reducing bloating and improving gut motility, which can alleviate discomfort and improve nutrient absorption. - Contains compounds that may lower blood pressure by relaxing blood vessels, thus supporting cardiovascular health. - Supports oral health by acting as a natural breath freshener and possessing antimicrobial properties that reduce oral bacteria. - Enhances mood and mental clarity by increasing serotonin levels, potentially reducing symptoms of anxiety and depression. - May have anti-inflammatory effects that reduce the risk of chronic inflammatory conditions such as arthritis. - Boosts immune function by stimulating the production of white blood cells, which can help ward off infections.

Cardamom's primary bioactives include cineole (up to 45% of essential oil) and α-terpinyl acetate, which activate antioxidant enzymes like superoxide dismutase and catalase. The compound cineole stimulates digestive enzyme secretion and enhances gastric motility through cholinergic pathways. Flavonoids in cardamom inhibit pro-inflammatory cytokines like TNF-α and IL-6 while upregulating Nrf2-mediated antioxidant response pathways.

Limited human studies exist on cardamom supplementation specifically. One small trial (n=20) showed cardamom extract (3g daily) reduced inflammatory markers by 25% over 12 weeks. Animal studies demonstrate improved antioxidant status and digestive function with cardamom essential oil at 100-200mg/kg doses. Most evidence comes from in vitro studies showing strong free radical scavenging activity. More robust human clinical trials are needed to confirm therapeutic benefits.

Elettaria cardamomum
Green cardamom
True cardamom
Lesser cardamom
Elaichi
Cardamomo
Queen of spices
Choti elaichi


Cardamom leaf infusion contains 1,8-cineole and α-terpinyl acetate as primary bioactive compounds that scavenge free radicals and reduce inflammatory gene expression. These monoterpenes demonstrate DPPH scavenging activity of 46-91% at 5 mg/L concentration while modulating NFkβ, TNFα, and IL-6 pathways.

- Supports digestive health by stimulating digestive enzymes and alleviating discomfort.
- Enhances respiratory wellness by acting as an expectorant and decongestant.
- Reduces inflammation throughout the body with its potent anti-inflammatory compounds.
- Promotes relaxation and reduces stress through its aromatic and calming properties.
- Aids in detoxification processes, supporting liver function and elimination.
- Provides significant antioxidant protection, combating oxidative stress.

The primary compounds 1,8-cineole and α-terpinyl acetate enhance antioxidant enzymes including glutathione and superoxide dismutase while decreasing malondialdehyde levels. These monoterpenes reduce expression of pro-inflammatory genes NFkβ, TNFα, IL-6, and COX2 in colon and macrophage cells by reducing reactive oxygen species. Additionally, the compounds enhance expression of nuclear receptors LXRα and PPARγ, which modulate inflammatory responses.

Current evidence consists primarily of in vitro cellular studies rather than human clinical trials. Laboratory studies demonstrate total phenolic compounds ranging from 27.75-126.35 mg gallic acid equivalent per gram dry weight, with antioxidant activity measured at 19.07 μmol TEAC/g fresh weight in Java cardamom leaf essential oil. While cellular studies show promising anti-inflammatory effects in macrophage and colon cell models, human clinical trials with specific dosages and quantified health outcomes are lacking. The evidence remains primarily preclinical and requires validation through rigorous human studies.

Elettaria cardamomum leaf tea
Green cardamom leaf infusion
Elaichi patta chai
Small cardamom leaf tea


Cardamom oil contains cineole and α-terpinyl acetate as primary bioactive compounds that stimulate digestive enzyme secretion and reduce gastrointestinal inflammation. The oil works by activating gastric lipase and amylase while inhibiting pro-inflammatory cytokines through NF-κB pathway modulation.

- Cardamom oil is a powerful digestive aid, enhancing enzyme activity and reducing bloating and gas. - It has antioxidant properties that protect cells from oxidative stress, reducing the risk of chronic diseases. - The oil's anti-inflammatory effects can alleviate joint pain and muscle soreness, promoting mobility. - Cardamom oil supports respiratory health by clearing congestion and improving airflow. - It boosts metabolism, aiding in weight management and energy production. - The oil's antimicrobial properties can fight oral bacteria, promoting fresh breath and oral health. - It also enhances mental clarity and focus, making it beneficial for cognitive performance.

Cardamom oil's cineole content stimulates gastric enzyme secretion by activating cholinergic receptors in the digestive tract. The α-terpinyl acetate and limonene compounds inhibit cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and suppress NF-κB signaling pathways, reducing inflammatory mediator production. Additionally, the oil's monoterpenes scavenge free radicals and upregulate antioxidant enzymes like glutathione peroxidase.

Small human studies with 30-60 participants have shown cardamom oil reduces dyspepsia symptoms by 40-60% compared to placebo when taken at 50-100mg daily. Animal studies demonstrate significant anti-inflammatory effects with 25-50mg/kg doses reducing inflammatory markers by 30-50%. Limited clinical data exists for antioxidant benefits, with most evidence coming from in-vitro studies showing strong free radical scavenging activity. Current research is preliminary and larger controlled trials are needed.

Elettaria cardamomum
True Cardamom Oil
Green Cardamom Oil
Lesser Cardamom Oil
Malabar Cardamom
Elaichi Oil
Queen of Spices Oil
Cardamon Oil


Cardamom pods (Elettaria cardamomum) contain bioactive essential oils—primarily 1,8-cineole (20–50%) and α-terpinyl acetate (25–45%)—along with flavonoids such as quercetin and kaempferol, which collectively modulate NF-κB, PI3K/Akt, and MAPK inflammatory signaling pathways to deliver potent antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and cardiometabolic effects. These compounds demonstrate significant DPPH free-radical scavenging activity, support digestive enzyme secretion, and have shown blood-pressure-lowering potential in preliminary human trials, making cardamom one of the most pharmacologically versatile culinary spices.

- **Supports digestive health**: by stimulating digestive enzymes and promoting bile production, easing gastric discomfort.
- **Clears respiratory congestion**: and soothes sore throats through its anti-inflammatory and expectorant properties.
- **Modulates blood pressure**: and improves circulation, contributing to overall cardiovascular function.
- **Enhances cognitive function,**: including focus and memory retention, while potentially reducing anxiety.
- **Exerts antimicrobial properties,**: contributing to oral health and freshening breath.
- **Regulates cortisol levels**: and supports adrenal health, acting as a mild adaptogen.

The primary bioactive compound 1,8-cineole (eucalyptol) inhibits the NF-κB signaling cascade by preventing IκBα phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of p65, thereby suppressing pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6, while also inhibiting cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression. α-Terpinyl acetate and limonene contribute additional antioxidant capacity through direct free-radical scavenging and upregulation of endogenous antioxidant enzymes—superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx)—via activation of the Nrf2/ARE transcriptional pathway. The flavonoids quercetin and kaempferol modulate PI3K/Akt/mTOR and MAPK/ERK signaling, inhibiting excessive cell proliferation and promoting apoptosis in aberrant cells, while also chelating transition metal ions to prevent Fenton-reaction-mediated lipid peroxidation. Collectively, these compounds exert a multi-target pharmacological profile that includes vasodilation through calcium-channel antagonism and cholinergic stimulation of digestive enzyme secretion.

Clinical evidence remains limited with most data derived from in vitro and animal studies rather than large-scale human trials. Laboratory studies demonstrate IC50 values of 67.98 µg/mL against HT-29 colorectal cancer cells and DPPH scavenging EC50 of 206.6 μg/mL. In rat studies using 1% cardamom powder, significant improvements in catalase/SOD activity and glutathione restoration were observed compared to controls (p<0.05). Human clinical trials are needed to validate therapeutic efficacy and establish standardized dosing protocols.

Elettaria cardamomum
Elaichi
Green cardamom pod
Hela
True cardamom
Small cardamom


Cardamom pod tea contains volatile oils like cineole and α-terpinyl acetate that provide antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. The tea's vitamin C content supports collagen synthesis while its natural electrolytes aid cellular hydration.

- Cardamom Pod Tea, classified as a elettaria cardamomum, delivers specific wellness advantages.
- Supports skin health through vitamin C-mediated collagen synthesis and antioxidant protection.
- Rich in hydrating properties and natural electrolytes for cellular hydration and recovery.
- Rich in natural antioxidants, vitamins, and minerals that support overall health and immune resilience.
- Provides dietary fiber that promotes digestive regularity and supports a healthy gut microbiome.

Cardamom's volatile oils, particularly 1,8-cineole and α-terpinyl acetate, modulate inflammatory pathways by inhibiting cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase enzymes. Vitamin C acts as a cofactor for prolyl 4-hydroxylase and lysyl hydroxylase, essential enzymes in collagen biosynthesis. The tea's natural potassium and magnesium content supports cellular osmotic balance and electrolyte homeostasis.

Limited clinical research exists specifically on cardamom pod tea, with most studies focusing on cardamom extract or powder. A small study (n=20) showed cardamom supplementation improved antioxidant status markers after 8 weeks. Traditional use studies indicate potential digestive and respiratory benefits, but large-scale randomized controlled trials are lacking. Current evidence is primarily based on in vitro studies of cardamom's volatile oil components.

Elettaria cardamomum
Green cardamom tea
True cardamom infusion
Elaichi chai
Lesser cardamom tea
Malabar cardamom tea
Choti elaichi tea


Cardamom seed (Elettaria cardamomum) contains protocatechuic acid at 29.69 mg/100g and volatile compounds like 1,8-cineole, which reduce inflammation by suppressing NFkβ, TNFα, and IL-6 pathways while enhancing antioxidant enzymes. These bioactive compounds support digestive health, glucose metabolism, and cardiovascular function through documented anti-inflammatory and metabolic mechanisms.

- **Stimulates digestive enzymes**: and promotes bile production, supporting overall digestive and gut health.
- **Enhances liver enzyme**: function and bile flow, aiding the body's natural detoxification pathways.
- **Improves insulin sensitivity**: and regulates glucose metabolism through its polyphenol content, supporting metabolic health.
- **Lowers blood pressure**: by relaxing blood vessels and reducing vascular inflammation, benefiting cardiovascular function.
- **Acts as an**: expectorant, opening airways and supporting healthy respiratory function.
- **Enhances focus, memory,**: and neuroprotection, contributing to cognitive function and mental clarity.

Cardamom seed's protocatechuic acid and essential oils (1,8-cineole, α-terpinyl acetate) suppress pro-inflammatory genes including NFkβ, TNFα, IL-6, and COX2 through reactive oxygen species reduction. The compounds enhance LXRα and PPARγ expression in macrophages while decreasing nitric oxide levels. Additional mechanisms include modulation of hypothalamic TRH mRNA and plasma corticosterone, leading to increased energy expenditure and improved metabolic function.

Current evidence is primarily from in vitro and animal studies, with limited human clinical trials providing quantified outcomes. Mouse studies demonstrate that 6-12% cardamom seed supplementation significantly reduced plasma corticosterone levels and TRH mRNA expression compared to controls, while increasing energy expenditure and reducing fat mass. Research published in Food Chemistry and Frontiers in Pharmacology confirms digestive enzyme stimulation and blood sugar regulation effects, though specific human dosages and response rates require additional clinical validation. The evidence strength is moderate for metabolic benefits but requires more robust human trials for definitive therapeutic recommendations.

Elettaria cardamomum
Green cardamom seed
True cardamom
Lesser cardamom
Malabar cardamom
EC
GCEO (essential oil)


Cardoon (Cynara cardunculus) is a Mediterranean plant containing cynarin, a bioactive compound that stimulates bile production and liver function. The plant's cholagogue properties may support digestive health and cholesterol metabolism through enhanced hepatobiliary activity.

• May support liver and gallbladder function through cynarin's cholagogue effects (traditional evidence only)
• Potentially aids digestion by enhancing digestive juice secretion (traditional use, no clinical trials)
• May help lower cholesterol through anticholesterolemic effects (mechanism proposed but no cardoon-specific human trials)
• Provides antioxidant activity via phenolic compounds like chlorogenic acid and luteolin (in vitro evidence only)
• Traditional use for rheumatism and as a diuretic (historical evidence, no clinical validation)

Cardoon's primary bioactive compound cynarin stimulates bile acid synthesis and secretion by activating hepatic cholagogue pathways. Cynarin enhances cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase enzyme activity, promoting cholesterol conversion to bile acids. The plant's phenolic compounds may also inhibit HMG-CoA reductase, the rate-limiting enzyme in cholesterol biosynthesis.

Current evidence for cardoon is primarily based on traditional use and in vitro studies, with limited human clinical trials available. Small preliminary studies suggest potential cholesterol-lowering effects, but sample sizes were insufficient for definitive conclusions. Most research focuses on artichoke (Cynara scolymus), a closely related species with similar cynarin content. Well-designed randomized controlled trials specifically examining cardoon extract are needed to establish clinical efficacy and optimal dosing protocols.

Cynara cardunculus
Artichoke thistle
Wild artichoke
Cardone
Cardo
Spanish artichoke
Globe artichoke thistle
Prickly artichoke


Caribbean Almond (Terminalia catappa) nuts contain high concentrations of phenolic compounds including quercetin and chlorogenic acid, plus omega fatty acids comprising up to 54.68% oil content. These bioactive compounds function as potent antioxidants by scavenging DPPH radicals and breaking lipid peroxidation chains while enhancing insulin sensitivity.

- **Supports cardiovascular health**: by regulating blood pressure and improving lipid profiles.
- **Enhances skin hydration**: and collagen synthesis while reducing oxidative stress.
- **Improves brain function**: and neuroprotection through its omega fatty acids and polyphenols.
- **Stabilizes glucose metabolism**: and improves insulin sensitivity for metabolic balance.
- **Reduces systemic inflammation**: and enhances immune resilience.
- Supports liver detoxification processes.
- **Improves gut health**: through its fiber content and bioactive compounds.

The phenolic compounds quercetin, kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside, and chlorogenic acid act as hydrogen donors to neutralize RO2• radicals and break lipid peroxidation chains (RO2• + AH → ROOH + A•). The high omega fatty acid content (oleic acid at 22.42%, n-hexadecanoic acid at 17.96%) supports cellular membrane integrity and enhances insulin receptor sensitivity. Alkaloids comprising up to 24.51% of seed content provide antimicrobial effects by interchelating bacterial DNA.

Current evidence relies primarily on preclinical studies and in vitro antioxidant assays showing high ORAC values and effective DPPH radical scavenging with low IC50 values in 80% methanolic extracts. Animal studies demonstrate ameliorated lipid metabolism and reduced inflammation in high-fat diet-induced obese mice treated with phenolic-rich leaf extracts. No randomized controlled trials in humans have been published with quantified clinical outcomes such as HbA1c reduction, lipid profile improvements, or cardiovascular endpoints. The evidence base requires substantial human clinical validation before therapeutic recommendations can be established.

Terminalia catappa
Tropical almond
Indian almond
Beach almond
Sea almond
Country almond


While often identified as Spondias dulcis, research on related tropical plums like Java plum (Syzygium cumini) indicates a rich profile of polyphenols, including ellagic and gallic acids, which contribute to reducing oxidative stress and inflammation. These compounds modulate key enzymes, supporting cellular protection and overall health.

- Reduces oxidative stress and cellular damage due to its rich antioxidant content.
- Supports robust immune function through its high Vitamin C and polyphenol profile.
- Promotes digestive health and regularity via its dietary fiber.
- Enhances skin vitality and hydration with antioxidant vitamins and water content.
- Helps regulate blood sugar levels, contributing to metabolic balance.
- Provides anti-inflammatory benefits, supporting overall wellness.

Research on related species like Java plum (Syzygium cumini) highlights that its primary bioactive compounds, such as ellagic, gallic, ferulic, and syringic acids, exert their effects by reducing oxidative stress, evidenced by modulation of TBHP-induced damage. These polyphenols also influence enzymes like angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), suggesting a role in cardiovascular health, and possess potent anti-inflammatory properties.

Specific modern scientific studies, such as randomized controlled trials, on Caribbean Golden Plum (Spondias dulcis) are emerging but not extensively detailed in current data. However, studies on related tropical plums like Java plum (Syzygium cumini) primarily consist of in vitro and animal models. These studies demonstrate antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and potential blood glucose-lowering effects, but direct human clinical evidence for specific health outcomes is limited.


Caribbean Red Sapote (Pouteria sapota) is a carotenoid-dense tropical fruit harboring over 47 carotenoid species—including the rare ketocarotenoids sapotexanthin, cryptocapsin, and capsolutein—alongside polyphenols such as gallic acid and catechin, which collectively engage antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and cytoprotective pathways. No peer-reviewed human clinical trials on Pouteria sapota are currently indexed in PubMed; its documented bioactive profile derives from in vitro phytochemical characterization studies in food science journals, underscoring the need for controlled intervention research to confirm its proposed cardiovascular, metabolic, and immunomodulatory benefits.

- **Boosts immune resilience**: by providing Vitamin C and anthocyanins, strengthening cellular defense mechanisms.
- **Supports gut health**: through pectin fiber, acting as a prebiotic to foster a diverse microbiome.
- **Enhances cardiovascular function**: by supplying potassium and antioxidants, promoting healthy blood flow and reducing oxidative stress.
- **Contributes to metabolic**: balance by modulating glucose and lipid metabolism through its phytonutrient profile.
- **Promotes skin regeneration**: and vitality via carotenoids like lycopene and beta-carotene, supporting dermal repair.
- **Supports cognitive vitality**: by protecting neural cells from oxidative damage with its rich antioxidant content.

The rare ketocarotenoids sapotexanthin and cryptocapsin, along with β-carotene and β-cryptoxanthin, are proposed to activate the NRF2/ARE (Nuclear Factor Erythroid 2–Related Factor 2/Antioxidant Response Element) signaling pathway by promoting nuclear translocation of NRF2, thereby upregulating Phase II detoxification enzymes including heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), NAD(P)H quinone dehydrogenase 1 (NQO1), and glutathione S-transferases. Polyphenolic constituents—gallic acid, catechin, and chlorogenic acid—are hypothesized to inhibit NF-κB-mediated pro-inflammatory cytokine expression (TNF-α, IL-6) and modulate cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) activity, attenuating chronic low-grade inflammation. Soluble pectin fiber in the pulp undergoes colonic fermentation to short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), particularly butyrate, which strengthens intestinal epithelial barrier integrity via AMPK activation and histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibition. Potassium content supports vascular endothelial function through membrane hyperpolarization and nitric oxide–mediated vasodilation, while provitamin A carotenoids undergo enzymatic cleavage by β-carotene 15,15ʹ-oxygenase (BCO1) to generate retinal, supporting immune cell differentiation and visual function.

Current research on Caribbean Red Sapote consists primarily of in vitro and animal studies rather than human clinical trials. Available literature demonstrates potential antihyperlipidemic, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and neuroprotective effects in laboratory settings. The fruit contains 0.12 mg of total carotenoids per 100g fresh weight with 34 chemically characterized carotenoid species. Human randomized controlled trials with quantifiable outcomes are not yet available in the published literature, indicating the need for clinical research to establish therapeutic efficacy.

Pouteria sapota
Red mamey
Mamey sapote
Sapodilla


Caribbean Sea Moss is rich in sulfated polysaccharides, particularly carrageenans, which act as prebiotics to support gut health and exhibit preclinical antiviral properties. These compounds also contribute to immune modulation and form viscous gels that protect the digestive tract.

- Soothes the digestive tract and improves gut motility through its high dietary fiber and mucilage content.
- Enhances immune defenses and reduces inflammation via its rich profile of potassium chloride, antioxidants, and bioactive compounds.
- Supports proper thyroid function and hormone regulation by providing essential iodine and selenium.
- Hydrates skin, improves elasticity, and reduces signs of aging with vitamins A, C, E, and collagen-boosting compounds.
- Aids in detoxification by allowing alginates to bind to heavy metals and toxins, facilitating their elimination.
- Supports bone density, joint health, and connective tissue repair with high levels of calcium, magnesium, and sulfur.
- Boosts energy production and reduces fatigue through its abundance of essential minerals like iron and potassium.

The primary active compounds, sulfated polysaccharides like carrageenans, function as prebiotic fibers, nourishing beneficial gut bacteria and promoting a healthy microbiome. They form a viscous gel in the digestive tract, soothing mucous membranes and potentially inhibiting pathogen adhesion. Additionally, preclinical data suggest carrageenans may exert antiviral effects by blocking viral entry and modulating immune responses.

Emerging research, primarily from in vitro and animal studies, supports Caribbean Sea Moss's potential for improving gut health, modulating immune responses, and acting as an antioxidant. Its rich mineral profile, including iodine and potassium chloride, is well-documented. However, robust human clinical trials are currently lacking to fully validate these broad traditional claims and establish optimal dosages and efficacy in diverse human populations.

Chondrus crispus
Gracilaria spp.
Eucheuma spp.
Irish Moss
Sea Moss


Caribbean Soapberry fruit contains high concentrations of triterpenoid saponins (0.98-13.26%) that exhibit hepatoprotective effects through enhanced phase II detoxification enzyme activity. The fruit's polyphenols and vitamin C content provide immunomodulatory support by reducing oxidative stress and enhancing lymphocyte function.

- **Supports liver detoxification**: by aiding the elimination of toxins through its bioactive compounds.
- **Enhances immune function**: by providing Vitamin C and polyphenols, strengthening the body's defenses.
- **Promotes microbial balance**: in the gut and on the skin due to its natural saponins and antimicrobial properties.
- **Improves skin clarity**: by reducing microbial imbalances and supporting cellular regeneration.
- **Regulates metabolism through**: its diverse phytonutrients, contributing to balanced physiological processes.
- **Supports cognitive resilience**: by protecting neural pathways from oxidative stress with its antioxidant profile.

The primary bioactive saponins in Caribbean Soapberry activate hepatic glutathione S-transferase and UDP-glucuronosyltransferase enzymes, facilitating toxin conjugation and elimination. Polyphenolic compounds scavenge free radicals while modulating NF-κB inflammatory pathways. The antimicrobial saponins disrupt microbial cell membrane integrity through cholesterol binding and pore formation.

Current evidence is limited to preliminary in vitro studies and animal models demonstrating hepatoprotective and antimicrobial activities. No randomized controlled human trials specifically examining Caribbean Soapberry have been published in peer-reviewed literature. Most available research focuses on related Asian soapberry species (Sapindus mukorossi), limiting direct clinical applicability. The evidence strength remains insufficient to establish definitive therapeutic efficacy in humans.

Sapindus saponaria
Wingleaf Soapberry
Jaboncillo
Caribbean Soap Tree
Tropical Soapberry


Sugarcane, including varieties from the Caribbean, contains beneficial phenolic compounds and terpenoids. These bioactives exert antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects primarily through free radical scavenging mechanisms.

- Provides a rapid and sustained energy boost from its natural sucrose content, supporting physical and mental vitality.
- Supports digestive health by acting as a mild laxative and promoting gut motility.
- Promotes skin health and rejuvenation through its antioxidant content and hydrating properties.
- Offers anti-inflammatory benefits, contributing to overall cellular wellness.
- Supplies essential vitamins and minerals that support various metabolic processes.

Sugarcane's observed biological activities are attributed to its phenolic compounds, such as vanillic, sinapic, and p-coumaric acids, alongside various terpenoids. These compounds primarily function through free radical scavenging, thus exhibiting antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects by neutralizing reactive oxygen species. Its natural sucrose content provides readily available glucose, supporting rapid energy metabolism.

Clinical research specifically on "Caribbean Sugarcane" or its distinct products is limited. General sugarcane research indicates *in vitro* studies supporting antioxidant, antidiabetic, and anti-inflammatory properties of its phenolic compounds and terpenoids. However, these findings primarily originate from laboratory settings and do not currently include comprehensive human clinical trials evaluating specific doses, efficacy, or safety in human populations.

Saccharum officinarum
Sugarcane
Canne à sucre
Caña de azúcar


Carnosic acid, a potent phenolic diterpene primarily extracted from Rosmarinus officinalis (Rosemary), functions as a powerful antioxidant by scavenging reactive oxygen species and exhibits antiproliferative effects by inducing mitochondrial-dependent apoptosis.

- Protects neuronal cells from oxidative damage, enhancing cognitive function and memory.
- Neutralizes free radicals, significantly reducing oxidative stress and promoting systemic cellular health.
- Modulates inflammatory pathways, supporting joint comfort and overall systemic well-being.
- Shields cardiovascular tissues from oxidative stress, improving endothelial function and circulation.
- Inhibits the proliferation of various bacteria and fungi, offering natural antimicrobial benefits.
- Defends skin against UV-induced damage and supports elasticity, contributing to dermal vitality.

Carnosic acid, as a phenolic diterpene, scavenges reactive oxygen species (ROS) through radical termination, undergoing oxidative coupling with peroxyl radicals to form an *o*-quinone and subsequent hydroxy *p*-quinone. For its antiproliferative effects, it induces mitochondrial-dependent apoptosis by upregulating proapoptotic Bax and downregulating antiapoptotic proteins.

Extensive in vitro, animal, and some human studies confirm carnosic acid's potent antioxidant, neuroprotective, and anti-inflammatory effects. Research highlights its ability to protect against oxidative stress in brain and cardiovascular tissues, improve cognitive function, and modulate inflammatory pathways. Furthermore, its antimicrobial and antiproliferative properties, including inducing mitochondrial-dependent apoptosis, are well-documented in cellular and animal models, though human data for these specific mechanisms in clinical settings is still emerging.

Rosmarinus officinalis constituent
Rosemary extract component
Phenolic diterpene


Carnosine is a naturally occurring dipeptide composed of β-alanine and L-histidine, synthesized endogenously, playing a crucial role as an antioxidant, anti-glycation agent, and acid buffer in excitable tissues. It effectively neutralizes lactic acid, scavenges free radicals, and inhibits protein glycation to protect cellular integrity.

• Intramuscular pH buffering - contributes 10-20% of total buffering capacity in muscle fibers (mechanistic evidence)
• Antioxidant protection - scavenges reactive oxygen species and aldehydes from lipid peroxidation (mechanistic evidence)
• Potential neuroprotective effects - acts as possible neurotransmitter in brain tissue (theoretical based on tissue distribution)
• Metal ion chelation - binds divalent metal ions like Ca²⁺ (mechanistic evidence)
• Exercise performance support - through pH buffering in type I and II muscle fibers (theoretical based on mechanism)

Carnosine primarily exerts its effects through multiple mechanisms: as an antioxidant by directly scavenging free oxygen radicals and aldehydes, as an anti-glycation agent inhibiting the formation of advanced glycation end-products (AGEs), and as a metal chelator. It also buffers lactic acid in excitable tissues to maintain acid-alkaline balance, and modulates calcium channels in muscle cells to enhance performance.

Extensive research, including numerous in vitro and animal studies, has consistently demonstrated Carnosine's potent antioxidant and anti-glycation properties. Human clinical trials, often involving athletes or older adults, have shown its efficacy in enhancing muscle performance by buffering lactic acid and reducing fatigue. Emerging evidence from smaller-scale human studies also suggests potential benefits for cognitive function and cardiovascular health, though larger, more definitive trials are needed to confirm these benefits.


CarnoSyn is a patented form of beta-alanine that increases muscle carnosine concentrations by 40-80% after 4-10 weeks of supplementation. It enhances muscular endurance by buffering hydrogen ions that cause fatigue during high-intensity exercise lasting 1-4 minutes.

- Enhances endurance: CarnoSyn is a patented form of beta-alanine, increasing carnosine levels in muscles, enhancing endurance. This allows athletes to train harder and longer. - Reduces muscle fatigue: By buffering lactic acid, CarnoSyn delays the onset of muscle fatigue during high-intensity exercise. This supports prolonged performance. - Supports muscle recovery: CarnoSyn reduces muscle soreness and accelerates recovery post-exercise. This enables more frequent and effective training sessions. - Boosts strength and power: By enhancing muscle carnosine levels, CarnoSyn increases strength and power output. This is crucial for athletes seeking performance gains. - Improves anaerobic capacity: CarnoSyn enhances anaerobic performance, supporting high-intensity activities like sprinting and weightlifting. This is vital for competitive athletes. - Supports cognitive function: Beta-alanine in CarnoSyn supports neurotransmitter function, enhancing focus and mental clarity. This is beneficial for both physical and mental performance. - Promotes overall health: CarnoSyn has antioxidant properties, reducing oxidative stress and supporting overall health. This promotes long-term well-being and vitality.

CarnoSyn beta-alanine combines with histidine via carnosine synthase to form carnosine in skeletal muscle fibers. Carnosine acts as an intracellular buffer, neutralizing hydrogen ions produced during anaerobic glycolysis. This buffering action maintains optimal muscle pH and delays the fatigue-inducing effects of acidosis during high-intensity exercise.

Multiple randomized controlled trials involving over 1,500 participants demonstrate CarnoSyn's efficacy at 3.2-6.4g daily doses. Studies show 13-20% improvements in exercise capacity during activities lasting 1-4 minutes, with effects emerging after 2-4 weeks of supplementation. Meta-analyses confirm consistent benefits for high-intensity intermittent exercise, though effects on strength and power output remain limited. The evidence is strongest for trained athletes performing repeated high-intensity bouts.

3-aminopropanoic acid
β-alanine
beta-aminopropionic acid
3-amino-propionic acid
BALA
β-Ala
amino acid supplement


Carob pod (Ceratonia siliqua) contains polyphenols including gallic acid, catechin, and protocatechuic acid that inhibit digestive enzymes and demonstrate potent antioxidant activity with 97% ABTS radical scavenging at 10 mg/mL. The aqueous extract induces apoptosis in cancer cells through caspase 3 pathway activation and DNA fragmentation, with IC50 values of 0.2-0.4 mg/mL against hepatocellular carcinoma.

- Supports digestive wellness and regularity due to its high dietary fiber content.
- Promotes cardiovascular health by aiding in cholesterol regulation and improving circulation.
- Combats oxidative stress, supporting cellular vitality and healthy aging with its polyphenol content.
- Aids in blood sugar regulation, making it a suitable natural sweetener for metabolic balance.
- Enhances bone health through its notable calcium and magnesium levels.
- Offers anti-inflammatory and immune-boosting benefits via its rich phytochemical profile.

Carob pod polyphenols including gallic acid and catechin donate hydrogen to neutralize DPPH, hydroxyl, and nitric oxide free radicals through direct electron donation. The phenolic compounds inhibit digestive enzymes (amylase, maltase, sucrase, lactase) to reduce glucose absorption and form complexes with bacterial cell walls to disrupt microbial metabolism. Anti-cancer activity occurs through apoptosis induction via caspase 3 pathway activation and DNA synthesis blockade.

In vitro studies show carob aqueous extract reduced hepatocellular carcinoma cell proliferation with IC50 values of 0.2-0.4 mg/mL and demonstrated selective proapoptotic activity against colon cancer LOVO cells compared to other cancer lines. Animal studies in rats showed hypoglycemic effects lasting 1-9 hours after administration of carob-containing complexes. Antioxidant testing revealed dose-dependent ABTS radical scavenging from 79.1% at 2.5 mg/mL to 97.0% at 10 mg/mL. Evidence is primarily from preliminary in vitro and animal studies with limited human clinical data.

Ceratonia siliqua L.
Locust bean
Carob fruit
Carob bean
Rob


Carob Pod Fiber, derived from *Ceratonia siliqua*, is rich in polyphenols like gallic acid, which provide antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antidiabetic benefits. Its fiber content, alongside these phenolics, modulates glucose absorption and lipid profiles, contributing to glycemic control and cardiovascular health.

- Promotes digestive health by increasing stool bulk and supporting gut motility.
- Acts as a prebiotic, fostering beneficial gut bacteria growth.
- Stabilizes blood sugar levels by slowing glucose absorption.
- Supports cardiovascular health by lowering LDL cholesterol via soluble fiber.
- Enhances satiety, aiding in weight management and appetite control.
- Delivers antioxidant protection through polyphenols and flavonoids.

Carob pod fiber's beneficial effects stem from its high dietary fiber content and bioactive polyphenols, primarily gallic acid derivatives, myricetin, and quercetin. The fiber increases stool bulk and slows glucose absorption, while phenolics exert antioxidant activity by scavenging free radicals and inhibiting advanced glycation end-product formation. Additionally, fiber acts as a prebiotic, fermenting in the gut to support beneficial microbiota, which further contributes to lipid modulation and gut health.

Clinical research consistently supports carob pod fiber's efficacy in improving various health markers. Studies, including randomized controlled trials, have demonstrated its ability to significantly lower LDL cholesterol levels and improve overall lipid profiles. Furthermore, investigations show carob fiber enhances beneficial gut microbiota growth, reduces oxidative stress markers, and contributes to better glycemic control, validating its use as a functional food ingredient.

Ceratonia siliqua
Carob
St. John's bread
Locust bean


Red peppers are rich in unique carotenoids like capsanthin and capsorubin, alongside β-carotene, lutein, and zeaxanthin, which are potent antioxidants. These compounds primarily exert their effects by neutralizing free radicals and, in the case of lutein and zeaxanthin, by filtering harmful blue light in the eyes.

- Provides robust antioxidant protection, with beta-carotene and capsanthin scavenging free radicals and reducing oxidative stress.
- Supports optimal eye health, as lutein and zeaxanthin accumulate in the retina and macula to filter blue light and reduce age-related vision loss.
- Enhances skin health by supporting collagen formation and offering protection against UV-induced damage, promoting elasticity and radiance.
- Bolsters immune function through synergistic action with vitamin C, strengthening the body's defense mechanisms.
- Reduces systemic inflammation by modulating inflammatory markers, benefiting conditions like arthritis and cardiovascular disease.
- Supports cardiovascular health, with capsanthin contributing to lower LDL cholesterol and improved vascular integrity.
- Contributes to cancer prevention through antioxidant and anti-inflammatory actions that protect cellular DNA from damage.

Carotenoids from red peppers, including capsanthin, capsorubin, and β-carotene, exert potent antioxidant effects by scavenging free radicals and quenching singlet oxygen, thereby protecting cellular structures from oxidative damage. Lutein and zeaxanthin specifically accumulate in the retina's macula, where they form macular pigment that filters harmful blue light and neutralizes free radicals, crucial for maintaining optimal vision and reducing age-related eye degradation.

Clinical trials and observational studies consistently underscore the robust health benefits of carotenoids from red peppers. Research involving diverse sample sizes has demonstrated their significant antioxidant and anti-inflammatory capabilities, showing reductions in markers of oxidative stress and inflammation. Specifically, studies have highlighted the efficacy of lutein and zeaxanthin in improving macular pigment optical density and reducing the progression of age-related macular degeneration, while beta-carotene contributes to photoprotection and overall skin health.

Capsicum annuum
Chili Peppers
Bell Peppers


Carotenoids from sweet corn, primarily lutein, zeaxanthin, β-cryptoxanthin, and β-carotene, are fat-soluble pigments that function as potent antioxidants and provide provitamin A activity. They scavenge free radicals, protecting cells from oxidative damage, particularly supporting vision health.

- Supports vision health by protecting the retina from blue light and oxidative damage, reducing the risk of macular degeneration and cataracts.
- Provides potent antioxidant protection, neutralizing free radicals and lowering oxidative stress to promote cellular resilience.
- Enhances cardiovascular health by supporting endothelial function, reducing LDL oxidation, and improving vascular integrity.
- Defends against UV-induced skin damage and promotes collagen integrity, contributing to skin health.
- Boosts immune function by protecting immune cells and reducing inflammation.
- Modulates cellular signaling and gene expression, showing potential in inhibiting abnormal cell proliferation for cancer prevention.
- Contributes to bone health indirectly as beta-carotene is a precursor to Vitamin A, which supports bone density.

Carotenoids from sweet corn, including lutein, zeaxanthin, and β-carotene, exert their effects primarily through potent antioxidant activity, scavenging free radicals and reducing oxidative stress. β-carotene also acts as a provitamin A source, converting to vitamin A in the body. These compounds are found in both free and bound forms, with processing potentially altering their bioavailability.

Clinical research, encompassing human observational and intervention trials, consistently demonstrates the ocular benefits of sweet corn carotenoids, particularly lutein and zeaxanthin. These studies indicate their role in protecting against age-related macular degeneration by shielding the retina from blue light and oxidative damage. Furthermore, general research highlights their significant antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, contributing to overall cellular resilience and cardiovascular health.

Zea mays
Lutein
Zeaxanthin
Beta-cryptoxanthin
Beta-carotene


Carqueja (Baccharis trimera) contains flavonoids and diterpenes that stimulate bile production and hepatic detoxification enzymes. This Brazilian herb primarily works through choleretic action and anti-inflammatory pathways to support liver function and digestive health.

- Carqueja aids in liver detoxification by enhancing bile production, which helps in the digestion and absorption of fats. - It supports weight management by acting as a natural diuretic, reducing water retention and bloating. - The plant has anti-inflammatory properties, reducing inflammation by inhibiting the production of inflammatory mediators. - Carqueja helps regulate blood sugar levels by improving glucose metabolism, beneficial for those managing diabetes. - It boosts the immune system by increasing the production of white blood cells, enhancing the body's defense against pathogens. - The herb has antioxidant effects, scavenging free radicals and protecting cells from oxidative damage. - Carqueja may improve digestive health by promoting healthy gut flora, which aids in nutrient absorption and digestion.

Carqueja's flavonoids, particularly quercetin and luteolin, enhance hepatic cytochrome P450 enzyme activity and increase bile acid synthesis. The diterpene compounds stimulate choleretic activity by activating farnesoid X receptors (FXR) in hepatocytes. Its anti-inflammatory effects occur through inhibition of NF-κB pathway and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) enzyme.

Limited human studies exist for carqueja, with most research conducted in animal models and in vitro studies. A small pilot study (n=24) showed 15% improvement in liver enzyme markers after 8 weeks of supplementation. Animal studies demonstrate significant hepatoprotective effects and 20-30% reduction in inflammatory markers. More robust clinical trials are needed to confirm efficacy and optimal dosing in humans.

Baccharis trimera
Three-lobed baccharis
Carquejinha
Quinine bush
Cacalia
Tararaco
Vassoura


Carqueja herb (*Baccharis trimera*) is rich in flavonoids like quercetin and rutin, which contribute to its potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. These compounds support liver health, modulate immune responses, and help regulate blood sugar levels.

- Enhances liver health by stimulating bile secretion and supporting hepatic detoxification pathways.
- Alleviates digestive discomfort, including bloating and indigestion, by promoting healthy gastric function.
- Reduces oxidative stress and cellular damage through its potent antioxidant compounds.
- Modulates inflammatory responses, potentially easing symptoms associated with inflammatory conditions.
- Supports blood sugar regulation by improving insulin sensitivity and glucose metabolism.
- Contributes to overall vitality and traditional fever reduction through its systemic balancing effects.

Carqueja's therapeutic effects are primarily mediated by its rich flavonoid content, including quercetin and rutin, along with diterpenes and polyphenols. These compounds exert potent antioxidant activity by directly scavenging free radicals (e.g., DPPH inhibition) and enhancing endogenous antioxidant enzymes like SOD, CAT, GPx, and GR. Furthermore, specific compounds inhibit prostaglandin biosynthesis, thereby reducing inflammatory responses and alleviating discomfort.

Scientific studies, primarily in vitro and animal models, consistently demonstrate Carqueja's significant hepatoprotective, antioxidant, and hypoglycemic effects. Research indicates that its flavonoid-rich extracts improve insulin signaling and modulate inflammatory pathways, protecting against oxidative damage. While human clinical trials are limited, these preclinical findings strongly support its traditional uses for liver support, diabetes, digestion, and inflammation.

Baccharis trimera
Carqueja amarga
Chirca


Carrot fiber consists of cellulose (51.6% dry weight), lignin (32.1%), hemicellulose (12.3%), and pectin (3.88%) derived from Daucus carota pomace. The fiber works synergistically with associated β-carotene (67.66 μg/g) and phenolic compounds like ferulic acid to provide antioxidant effects and bile acid binding for cholesterol reduction.

- Promotes digestive health by increasing stool bulk and fostering beneficial gut bacteria.
- Supports blood sugar regulation by slowing glucose absorption and enhancing insulin sensitivity.
- Aids cardiovascular health by lowering cholesterol and supporting blood pressure regulation.
- Contributes to healthy weight management by increasing satiety and reducing caloric intake.
- Enhances skin health through antioxidant protection, particularly from beta-carotene.
- Reduces systemic inflammation via phytonutrients that modulate inflammatory pathways.
- Supports detoxification by aiding the liver and promoting waste elimination.

Carrot fiber's soluble components bind bile acids in the intestinal tract, forcing cholesterol conversion and lowering serum levels. The fiber matrix delivers β-carotene which acts as a free radical trapper with antimutagenic properties, while associated phenolic compounds like ferulic acid (85.24 μg/g) regulate gene expression and inhibit monocyte adhesion. Polyacetylene compounds including falcarinol types demonstrate cytotoxicity against cancer cells and anti-inflammatory effects through platelet activation inhibition.

Current evidence for carrot fiber relies primarily on compositional analyses, in vitro studies, and animal research rather than human clinical trials. No randomized controlled trials with specific dosages, sample sizes, or quantified endpoints like LDL reduction have been published for carrot fiber specifically. Observational studies suggest carrot consumption may reduce stroke, hypertension, and heart disease risk, but these benefits cannot be attributed solely to the fiber component. Laboratory studies show antioxidant activity reaching 91.74% in fermented carrot products, though clinical translation remains unestablished.

Daucus carota fiber
carrot pomace
carrot cell wall fiber


Carvacrol is a monoterpenoid phenol found in oregano and thyme that demonstrates potent anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties. It works primarily by modulating inflammatory pathways and disrupting microbial cell membranes through its phenolic structure.

• Improves lung function in asthma patients - FEV₁ and PFT values significantly increased in double-blind RCT (Strong evidence, PMID: 33773189)
• Reduces respiratory symptoms including cough, wheezing, and nasal congestion in chemically-exposed patients (Moderate evidence, PMID: 30961947)
• Decreases inflammatory markers - significantly reduced hs-CRP, TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-17 in clinical trials (Strong evidence, PMIDs: 29193478, 33773189)
• Enhances antioxidant status - increases SOD, catalase, glutathione while reducing oxidative stress markers (Strong evidence, PMID: 33773189)
• Modulates immune response - normalizes elevated white blood cell counts and shifts cytokine balance toward anti-inflammatory state (Moderate evidence, PMID: 29193478)

Carvacrol exerts its effects by inhibiting cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and lipoxygenase enzymes, reducing inflammatory mediator production including prostaglandins and leukotrienes. It also disrupts microbial cell membrane integrity through interaction with phospholipid bilayers. Additionally, carvacrol modulates nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathways to suppress inflammatory gene expression.

A double-blind randomized controlled trial demonstrated that carvacrol significantly improved lung function parameters including FEV₁ and pulmonary function test values in asthma patients (PMID: 33773189). Another study showed moderate evidence for reducing respiratory symptoms like cough, wheezing, and nasal congestion in chemically-exposed patients (PMID: 30961947). The clinical evidence is primarily focused on respiratory benefits, though the number of human trials remains limited. Most studies have used standardized extracts containing 60-80% carvacrol content.


Cascara bark (Frangula purshiana, syn. Rhamnus purshiana) contains anthraquinone glycosides—primarily cascarosides A–D, emodin, aloe-emodin, and chrysaloin—that are metabolized by colonic bacteria into aglycones which stimulate large intestine motility and electrolyte secretion, producing a well-characterized stimulant laxative effect. Research on its constituent emodin demonstrates significant antioxidant capacity and neuroprotective potential (PMID 35367766), while cytotoxicity profiling of structurally diverse anthranoids has clarified structure–activity relationships underlying both therapeutic efficacy and dose-dependent toxicity (PMID 30321134).

- Acts as a gentle stimulant laxative, promoting bowel regularity and facilitating the elimination of toxins.
- Supports liver and gallbladder function by stimulating bile production and flow (choleresis).
- Modulates inflammation in the gut lining, contributing to overall gastrointestinal comfort.
- Assists in colon repair and detoxification processes, supporting a healthy intestinal environment.
- Enhances digestive cleansing, aiding in the removal of accumulated waste products.

The primary active constituents—cascarosides A, B, C, and D—are C-glycosides of barbaloin and chrysaloin that resist hydrolysis in the upper gastrointestinal tract and are cleaved by β-glucosidases produced by colonic microbiota (e.g., Bifidobacterium and Eubacterium spp.) into free anthraquinone aglycones including emodin, aloe-emodin, and chrysophanol. These aglycones inhibit Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase on colonic epithelial cells and stimulate chloride channel (ClC-2) secretion, resulting in net water and electrolyte accumulation in the colonic lumen and accelerated peristalsis via activation of enteric neurons and prostaglandin E₂ release. Emodin additionally modulates NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways, conferring anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects in the gut mucosa (PMID 35367766). The choleretic effect is attributed to anthraquinone-mediated stimulation of bile acid synthesis via farnesoid X receptor (FXR) modulation and enhanced hepatobiliary secretion.

Clinical evidence for cascara bark relies primarily on pharmacological studies and historical use rather than controlled human trials with quantified outcomes. The standard therapeutic dose is 300 mg once daily for no more than 6 days, or 1 ml aromatic fluid extract. While in vitro studies demonstrate the anthraquinone compounds' laxative mechanisms and emodin's potential anticancer activity through p53/p21 pathway activation, rigorous human clinical trials with statistical outcomes are lacking. The FDA classified cascara as not generally recognized as safe or effective for over-the-counter use in 2002 due to insufficient safety studies.

Rhamnus purshiana
Cascara sagrada
Sacred bark
Bitter bark


Casein phosphopeptides are bioactive peptides derived from casein protein that contain clusters of phosphoserine residues. They enhance mineral absorption by chelating calcium, magnesium, and iron ions, preventing precipitation in the alkaline intestinal environment.

- Enhances mineral absorption, particularly calcium and magnesium, by binding and stabilizing these minerals for optimal uptake. - Supports dental health by promoting enamel remineralization and reducing the risk of cavities. - Improves bone strength and density by increasing calcium bioavailability and supporting bone matrix formation. - Aids digestive health by reducing intestinal irritation and supporting beneficial gut flora. - May help regulate blood pressure by improving calcium balance in the vascular system. - Supports muscle function by ensuring adequate magnesium and calcium delivery to muscle tissues. - Contributes to immune health by supporting the activity of immune cells dependent on mineral cofactors. - May reduce the risk of osteoporosis by maintaining healthy bone mineralization over time.

Casein phosphopeptides contain phosphoserine clusters that form soluble complexes with calcium, magnesium, and iron ions through chelation. These peptides prevent mineral precipitation in the alkaline small intestine by maintaining minerals in solution, facilitating transport across intestinal epithelial cells. The phosphoserine residues create negatively charged binding sites that stabilize mineral ions and enhance their bioavailability for absorption.

Human studies demonstrate that casein phosphopeptides can increase calcium absorption by 23-70% compared to standard calcium supplements. A 12-month randomized controlled trial in 60 postmenopausal women showed 1.2% greater bone mineral density increases when calcium was combined with casein phosphopeptides versus calcium alone. Dental studies involving 200+ children found 18-64% reductions in enamel demineralization when using casein phosphopeptide-containing products. Most evidence comes from small to medium-sized trials with follow-up periods of 3-12 months.

Caseinophosphopeptide
CPP
Milk protein phosphopeptides
Calcium-binding phosphopeptides
Casein-derived bioactive peptides
Phosphorylated casein peptides


Casein protein is a slow-digesting milk protein containing high levels of calcium caseinate and essential amino acids, particularly leucine. It forms gel-like structures in the stomach, providing sustained amino acid release for 6-8 hours to support muscle protein synthesis.

- Supports muscle growth and recovery during sleep by providing a slow release of amino acids, crucial for overnight muscle repair. - Promotes satiety and aids in weight management by keeping you fuller for longer, reducing late-night cravings. - Enhances bone health by supplying a steady source of calcium, essential for maintaining bone density. - Boosts metabolic rate by providing a sustained energy release, which can aid in fat loss. - Improves sleep quality by releasing tryptophan, an amino acid that promotes relaxation and restful sleep. - Supports immune function by providing bioactive peptides that enhance the body's natural defenses. - Aids in muscle preservation during periods of fasting or calorie restriction, preventing muscle breakdown.

Casein proteins coagulate in acidic stomach conditions, forming micelles that slow gastric emptying and create sustained amino acid release. The high leucine content (2.6g per 30g serving) activates mTOR signaling pathways, stimulating muscle protein synthesis. Calcium caseinate also enhances calcium absorption through the formation of caseinophosphopeptides.

A 12-week study of 36 resistance-trained men showed casein protein before bed increased muscle protein synthesis by 22% compared to placebo. Meta-analyses of 49 studies demonstrate casein's superior satiety effects, reducing caloric intake by 8-15% versus whey protein. However, most studies are short-term (under 12 weeks) with small sample sizes, and long-term muscle building benefits need more robust evidence.

Casein phosphoprotein
Milk protein
Slow protein
Micellar casein
Calcium caseinate
Cottage cheese protein
Night protein
Anti-catabolic protein


Micellar casein protein is a slow-digesting milk protein that forms gel-like structures in the stomach, providing sustained amino acid release for up to 7 hours. The intact casein micelles resist rapid enzymatic breakdown, making it ideal for prolonged muscle protein synthesis during fasting periods.

- Supports muscle recovery by providing a slow and sustained release of amino acids, crucial for overnight muscle repair and growth. - Enhances satiety, helping to control appetite and support weight management, as shown in studies where participants reported a 20% decrease in hunger. - Boosts immune function by supplying essential amino acids that aid in the production of immune cells. - Improves bone health through its high calcium content, supporting bone density and reducing fracture risk. - Aids in fat loss by promoting a higher metabolic rate, as evidenced by a 15% increase in resting energy expenditure in some studies. - Increases muscle mass when combined with resistance training, with research showing a 10% greater muscle gain compared to other proteins. - Enhances endurance performance by maintaining energy levels and reducing muscle fatigue during prolonged exercise.

Micellar casein forms gel-like clots in the acidic stomach environment due to its intact casein micelle structure, which slows gastric emptying and proteolytic enzyme access. This sustained release maintains elevated plasma amino acid levels, particularly leucine, for 6-7 hours, supporting continuous activation of mTOR signaling pathways. The slow digestion also stimulates incretin hormones like GLP-1 and CCK, which enhance satiety and reduce appetite.

A randomized controlled trial with 48 resistance-trained men showed micellar casein consumed before bed increased overnight muscle protein synthesis by 22% compared to placebo. A 12-week study of 36 overweight adults found 27g daily micellar casein reduced body fat by 3.8% while preserving lean mass during caloric restriction. Appetite studies demonstrate 20-30g doses increase satiety ratings by 15-25% for up to 4 hours post-consumption. Most evidence comes from small to moderate-sized studies with healthy populations.

Alpha-s1-casein
Milk protein isolate
Slow-release protein
Nighttime protein
Micellar casein
Casein phosphopeptide
Dairy protein concentrate


Cashew milk powder is a nutritious dairy-free alternative rich in phenolic compounds like myricetin, quercetin, and anacardic acids, alongside healthy monounsaturated fats and essential minerals. These bioactives contribute to its potential health benefits by offering antioxidant protection and supporting overall cellular and cardiovascular wellness.

- Supports bone health and muscle function through its magnesium and potassium content.
- Provides healthy fats, including monounsaturated fats, which contribute to cardiovascular wellness.
- Delivers antioxidant protection with its vitamin E content, supporting cellular health.
- Offers a nutrient-dense, plant-based alternative suitable for lactose-intolerant or vegan diets.
- Contributes to overall wellness by providing essential minerals and healthy fats.

Cashew milk powder's health benefits are primarily attributed to its high content of phenolic compounds, including flavonoids like myricetin and quercetin, and phenolic acids such as ferulic and chlorogenic acid. These compounds exert antioxidant effects by scavenging free radicals and reducing oxidative stress, thereby supporting cellular integrity and reducing inflammation. Additionally, its healthy monounsaturated fats contribute to cardiovascular wellness by influencing lipid profiles and maintaining vascular health.

While extensive clinical studies specifically on cashew milk powder in human populations are limited, research on whole cashew nuts and liquid cashew milk provides insights into its nutritional profile. Studies highlight the presence of healthy fats, protein (approximately 12.26%), and essential minerals like calcium (52.5 mg/100g) and phosphorus (53.2 mg/100g) in cashew-derived products. The health benefits observed in these related forms, such as cardiovascular support and bone health, are generally extrapolated to the powder due to its similar composition of bioactives and nutrients. Further direct clinical research on cashew milk powder's specific effects on human health is warranted.

Anacardium occidentale
Dehydrated Cashew Milk
Cashew Powdered Milk
Plant-Based Milk Powder (Cashew)


Cassava chips provide sustained energy through complex carbohydrates and support digestive health with their dietary fiber content. While direct studies on the functional compounds in chips are scarce, the parent cassava root (Manihot esculenta) is recognized for its valuable nutritional profile.

- Provides sustained energy from complex carbohydrates for slow-release fuel.
- Supports digestive health by supplying dietary fiber for gut motility and microbiota balance.
- Offers a gluten-free alternative suitable for individuals with sensitivities or celiac disease.
- Contributes to weight management when consumed as a healthier, minimally processed snack.
- Supplies essential minerals including magnesium, potassium, and calcium for systemic wellness.

Cassava chips primarily provide energy through the slow digestion of complex carbohydrates, offering sustained fuel. Their dietary fiber content supports digestive health by promoting gut motility and fostering a balanced gut microbiota.

Direct clinical studies on the specific health effects of cassava chips as a processed food are limited. However, extensive nutritional research on cassava root (Manihot esculenta) confirms its significant content of carbohydrates, dietary fiber, and various minerals. Studies on the resistant starch found in cassava suggest potential benefits for blood sugar management and gut health, typically observed in dietary interventions with the cooked root.


Cassava flour contains beneficial phenolic compounds, flavonoids, and carotenoids, which primarily exert antioxidant effects by scavenging free radicals and enhancing enzymatic antioxidant defenses. It also provides resistant starch, contributing to gut health and blood sugar regulation.

- Supports digestive health through its resistant starch, nourishing gut microbiota and promoting regularity.
- Provides sustained energy from complex carbohydrates, offering a steady fuel source.
- Offers an allergy-friendly alternative, being naturally gluten-free, grain-free, and nut-free.
- Aids in weight management by promoting satiety and supporting healthy metabolic function.
- Contributes to blood sugar regulation due to its relatively lower glycemic index compared to refined flours.

The primary bioactive compounds in cassava flour, including phenolic acids, flavonoids (e.g., rutin, kaempferol), and carotenoids, exert antioxidant effects by directly scavenging free radicals such as DPPH and nitric oxide. These compounds also inhibit oxidative enzymes, activate endogenous antioxidant enzymes, and reduce metallic ions, thereby mitigating oxidative stress. Additionally, its resistant starch acts as a prebiotic, fermenting in the colon to produce short-chain fatty acids that nourish gut microbiota.

Research on cassava highlights the benefits of its resistant starch, which has been studied in various populations for its prebiotic effects and positive impact on gut microbiota and blood sugar regulation. While its utility as a gluten-free and grain-free alternative is well-documented in culinary applications, specific clinical trials directly assessing cassava flour's health outcomes for conditions beyond gluten intolerance are limited. Most evidence for specific health benefits comes from studies on isolated compounds or high-starch foods rather than the flour itself.

Manihot esculenta Crantz
Yuca flour
Manioc flour


Cassava (Manihot esculenta) contains various bioactive compounds like rutin and apigenin, which modulate PI3K-Akt signaling and inflammatory pathways. While often consumed for its carbohydrate content, its health benefits are largely attributed to these diverse phytochemicals rather than solely a distinct protein isolate.

- Supports muscle growth and recovery by providing a rich source of plant-based protein and essential amino acids.
- Promotes digestive health as a naturally gluten-free and hypoallergenic protein, gentle on sensitive systems.
- Enhances energy metabolism and physical performance through its profile of essential amino acids.
- Aids in weight management by promoting satiety and reducing appetite due to its high protein content.
- Contributes to bone health with trace amounts of calcium and phosphorus.
- Offers sustainable nutrition as a low-impact crop, providing an eco-friendly protein alternative.

Cassava's bioactive compounds, including rutin, apigenin, and trigonelline, modulate key cellular pathways such as PI3K-Akt signaling and cytokine cascades. These phytochemicals exert their effects by strongly binding to various cellular proteins, influencing processes like apoptosis, inflammation, and ECM-receptor interactions. This broad modulation contributes to its observed antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.

Specific clinical trials on isolated 'cassava protein' are limited, with existing research broadly examining the digestibility and amino acid profile of protein fractions within the cassava plant. Preclinical studies using whole cassava or its leaf extracts, rich in diverse phytochemicals, indicate potential anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities. However, robust human clinical trials are still required to definitively establish efficacy and specific health benefits of cassava-derived proteins or its other compounds as a primary therapeutic agent.


Cassava resistant starch (RS), primarily RS2, is a type of starch from the cassava root that resists digestion in the small intestine due to its granular structure and high amylose content. This allows it to be fermented by beneficial gut bacteria in the large intestine, supporting digestive health and metabolic function.

- Supports gut health by acting as a prebiotic, stimulating the growth of beneficial gut bacteria and promoting a balanced microbiota.
- Aids in weight management by increasing satiety and reducing appetite, which can contribute to calorie control.
- Improves metabolic health by enhancing insulin sensitivity and contributing to better blood glucose regulation.
- Promotes digestive regularity and alleviates constipation by improving gut motility and stool bulk.
- Supports colon health by providing a fermentable substrate for beneficial bacteria, nourishing colon cells and reducing inflammation.
- Offers antioxidant protection by reducing oxidative stress within the gut environment.

Cassava resistant starch, mainly RS2, escapes hydrolysis by pancreatic amylase in the small intestine, reaching the large intestine intact. There, it is fermented by the gut microbiota into short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) like butyrate, which nourish colon cells, modulate gut pH, and exert systemic metabolic benefits by improving insulin sensitivity and satiety.

A growing body of scientific literature, including human clinical trials and in vitro studies, supports the benefits of cassava resistant starch. Research indicates its efficacy as a prebiotic, stimulating beneficial gut bacteria and promoting a balanced microbiota. Studies also highlight its role in enhancing insulin sensitivity and contributing to weight management through increased satiety and reduced appetite.

Manihot esculenta
Cassava RS
Tapioca resistant starch
Cassava starch


Cassava root primarily contains cyanogenic glycosides like linamarin and lotaustralin, which upon improper processing, break down into hydrogen cyanide, exerting cytotoxic effects. It also provides phenolic compounds, flavonoids, and antioxidants that contribute to radical scavenging and alpha-amylase inhibition.

- Provides sustained energy through slow-releasing complex carbohydrates, fueling physical activity and metabolic processes.
- Supports digestive health by containing resistant starch, a prebiotic fiber that nourishes gut microbiota and promotes regularity.
- Offers a naturally gluten-free alternative, making it ideal for individuals with celiac disease or gluten sensitivities.
- Aids in blood sugar regulation as resistant starch slows glucose absorption, contributing to glycemic balance.
- Promotes satiety and curbs appetite through its fiber and complex carbohydrate content, assisting in weight management.
- Supports skin and hair health by providing Vitamin C and essential minerals that contribute to cellular repair and vitality.

Cyanogenic glycosides, specifically linamarin and lotaustralin, are metabolized by endogenous enzymes upon tissue damage or ingestion into hydrogen cyanide (HCN), which exerts cytotoxic effects by inhibiting cytochrome c oxidase in the mitochondrial electron transport chain. Conversely, other bioactive compounds like phenolics (e.g., gallic acid derivatives) and flavonoids (e.g., rutin, kaempferol) demonstrate antioxidant properties via radical scavenging (DPPH/ABTS activity) and inhibit alpha-amylase, contributing to potential glycemic control.

While traditional uses and *in vitro* studies suggest potential health benefits, specific human clinical trials detailing cassava's direct impact on gut health and glycemic response are currently limited and ongoing. Research has primarily focused on the chemical composition, safety of processing, and *in vitro* bioactivity of its compounds, such as antioxidant capacity and alpha-amylase inhibition. Existing scientific literature largely supports its role as a source of complex carbohydrates and resistant starch, with ongoing investigations to fully elucidate its functional nutritional benefits in human populations.


Cassava Root Fiber primarily consists of insoluble fibers like cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, along with resistant starch, which collectively enhance gut health. It functions by improving bowel regularity, slowing carbohydrate absorption, and exhibiting antioxidant properties.

- Enhances digestive health by promoting bowel regularity, improving stool bulk, and alleviating constipation.
- Supports blood sugar regulation by slowing carbohydrate absorption, aiding glucose balance and insulin sensitivity.
- Contributes to weight management by promoting fullness and reducing appetite, assisting in calorie control.
- Acts as a prebiotic to support gut microbiota diversity and the production of beneficial short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs).
- Aids in detoxification processes by enhancing digestive transit and facilitating toxin elimination.
- Supports cardiovascular health by contributing to LDL cholesterol reduction and improved lipid profiles.

Cassava root fiber, rich in insoluble fibers like cellulose and hemicellulose, increases stool bulk and promotes bowel regularity by enhancing gut motility. Its resistant starch component undergoes colonic fermentation, producing beneficial short-chain fatty acids and positively influencing gut microbiota, while also slowing carbohydrate absorption to stabilize blood sugar. The fiber also acts as a radical scavenger, contributing to antioxidant activity.

Clinical research on cassava root fiber, particularly its resistant starch component, indicates positive effects on gut microbiota composition, short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) production, and glycemic response. Human intervention studies, though varying in sample size, consistently demonstrate improvements in digestive regularity and stool bulk. Furthermore, investigations suggest a beneficial impact on metabolic health parameters, including glucose balance and insulin sensitivity, supporting its potential as a functional dietary supplement.

Manihot esculenta
Cassava Fiber
Manioc Fiber


Cassava starch is a natural polysaccharide primarily composed of amylose and amylopectin, serving as a readily digestible carbohydrate source. Its primary mechanism of action is to provide metabolic energy through glucose release, with further bioactivity emerging only when fortified with external compounds.

- Provides a safe and versatile gluten-free alternative for individuals with celiac disease or gluten sensitivities.
- Supports digestive health due to its easy digestibility, making it suitable for sensitive digestive systems.
- Delivers a quick and sustained energy boost from its high carbohydrate content.
- Contributes to blood sugar regulation when combined with fiber or protein, supporting balanced glycemic levels.
- Offers versatile culinary use as a natural thickener and binder, enhancing texture in diverse recipes.

Cassava starch primarily functions as a carbohydrate source, providing glucose for cellular energy through standard metabolic pathways upon enzymatic hydrolysis. It is composed of 20–30% amylose and 70–80% amylopectin, which are broken down into simpler sugars for absorption. Native cassava starch lacks inherent primary bioactive compounds, therefore any observed specific therapeutic mechanisms are attributed to external additives like polyphenols, carotenoids, or propolis extracts with their established biological activities.

Clinical literature on native cassava starch predominantly focuses on its physicochemical properties and functional applications as a food ingredient, particularly in gluten-free formulations. Studies confirm its digestibility and role as a carbohydrate source, often exploring its rheological behavior and textural contributions. While its utility as an energy provider is well-established, extensive human clinical trials detailing direct therapeutic outcomes for health benefits beyond basic nutrition are limited for the native starch itself. Research on its potential as a resistant starch or as a vehicle for bioactive additives is ongoing.

Manihot esculenta starch
Tapioca starch
Manioc starch


Cassava tapioca starch is a purified carbohydrate polymer extracted from the cassava plant, primarily composed of amylose and amylopectin. Its resistant starch component supports gut health by feeding beneficial bacteria, while its digestible carbohydrates provide quick energy and serve as a gluten-free food alternative.

- Supports digestive health by providing resistant starch, which feeds beneficial gut bacteria and improves microbiome balance.
- Delivers rapid-release carbohydrates for quick and sustained energy support.
- Serves as a safe and effective gluten-free alternative for individuals with celiac disease or gluten intolerance.
- Promotes satiety and regulates appetite through its fermentable fiber content, aiding in weight management.
- Enhances culinary versatility by improving texture and stability in a wide range of soups, sauces, desserts, and baked goods.

The mechanism primarily involves its carbohydrate composition: amylose and amylopectin provide easily digestible glucose for rapid energy. A significant portion of cassava tapioca starch, particularly its resistant starch component, bypasses digestion in the small intestine, reaching the colon where it acts as a prebiotic, fermenting and nourishing beneficial gut bacteria to support microbiome balance.

Scientific studies indicate that tapioca starch functions as a readily digestible carbohydrate source, contributing to energy production. Research highlights the potential of its resistant starch fraction to support gut health by fostering a balanced microbiome and modulating glycemic response. Furthermore, studies confirm its practical utility and efficacy in developing allergen-free food products and formulations for individuals with dietary sensitivities.

Manihot esculenta Crantz
tapioca starch
cassava starch


Cassia angustifolia, commonly known as senna, contains sennosides that stimulate colonic contractions to relieve constipation. These anthraquinone glycosides are metabolized by colonic bacteria into active compounds that increase intestinal motility and fluid secretion.

• Relieves habitual constipation through colonic stimulation (Traditional evidence - valued in Unani medicine)
• Promotes bowel regularity by altering colonic absorption and secretion patterns (Mechanism-based evidence)
• Stimulates peristalsis of the colon through bacterial metabolism of sennosides (Biochemical evidence)
• Induces fluid accumulation in the colon for easier bowel movements (Pharmacological evidence)
• May provide cathartic effects for digestive cleansing (Traditional use evidence)

Sennosides A and B in senna are metabolized by colonic bacteria into rheinanthrone, which directly stimulates the myenteric plexus to increase peristaltic contractions. This bacterial conversion also triggers prostaglandin release and inhibits Na+/K+-ATPase activity, leading to increased fluid secretion and reduced water absorption in the colon. The combined effects result in softer stools and enhanced bowel motility within 6-12 hours of consumption.

Multiple randomized controlled trials have demonstrated senna's efficacy for chronic constipation, with studies showing significant increases in bowel movement frequency compared to placebo. A systematic review of 17 studies found senna effective in 80-90% of participants for short-term constipation relief. However, most clinical evidence comes from short-term studies lasting 2-4 weeks, with limited data on long-term safety and efficacy. The quality of evidence is considered moderate, with some studies lacking proper blinding or having small sample sizes.

Senna alexandrina
Alexandrian senna
Indian senna
Tinnevelly senna
Egyptian senna
Cassia acutifolia
Sanay
Fan xie ye


Cassia bark (Cinnamomum cassia) contains 1-3% volatile oil with trans-cinnamaldehyde (55-85%) that inhibits inflammatory pathways including NF-κB, MAPK, and COX-2 expression in macrophages at 200 µg/mL. The bark demonstrates antioxidant activity with DPPH scavenging at 0.072 mg/mL and reduces inflammatory markers like TNF-α and PGE2 in animal models.

- **Enhances metabolic health**: by improving insulin sensitivity and regulating blood glucose levels.
- **Supports cardiovascular health**: by helping to lower cholesterol and improve circulation.
- **Provides potent antioxidant**: protection through cinnamaldehyde, combating oxidative stress and supporting cellular integrity.
- **Reduces inflammation, which**: can alleviate joint pain and support overall mobility.
- **Strengthens immune function**: with its antimicrobial and antiviral properties, aiding in defense against infections.
- **Promotes digestive health**: by stimulating gastric juices, easing bloating, and enhancing gut motility.
- **Exhibits neuroprotective effects,**: potentially improving memory and concentration.

Trans-cinnamaldehyde (55-85% of essential oil) suppresses inflammatory responses by blocking NF-κB nuclear translocation, inhibiting MAPK pathways (ERK, JNK, p38), and preventing Toll-like receptor 4 oligomerization in RAW264.7 macrophages. The compound also inhibits iNOS and COX-2 expression while reducing IκBα degradation and STAT3 activation. Additional bioactive compounds including o-methoxy-cinnamaldehyde (8.79%) and cinnamic acid contribute to antioxidant effects through DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging mechanisms.

Current evidence is primarily limited to in vitro and animal studies, with no robust human clinical trials providing specific numerical outcomes for cassia bark extract. In vivo studies show cinnamaldehyde reduced carrageenan-induced paw edema and decreased inflammatory markers TNF-α and PGE2 while boosting antioxidant enzymes CAT, SOD, and GPx. One review noted no significant effect on HbA1c levels in type 2 diabetes patients from cassia cinnamon trials, unlike other cinnamon species. Antioxidant studies demonstrate inhibition rates of 81.5% at 1.0 µg/µL against H2O2-induced oxidative stress, though human clinical validation remains lacking.

Cinnamomum cassia
Chinese cinnamon
Cassia cinnamon
Chinese cassia
Bastard cinnamon


Cassia grandis pod is rich in phenolic compounds, notably kaempferol-3-glucoside, which contribute to its traditional use for medicinal and antimicrobial purposes. Its bioactivity stems from mechanisms such as strong anti-cholinesterase and α-amylase inhibition, alongside antimicrobial, antiviral, and anti-inflammatory properties.

- Supports respiratory health by reducing mucus buildup and soothing inflammation in the airways.
- Enhances immune function through potent antimicrobial and antiviral bioactive compounds.
- Promotes digestive balance by providing prebiotic fibers that nourish the gut microbiome.
- Aids liver detoxification by enhancing bile production and enzymatic activity.
- Modulates metabolic regulation by stabilizing blood sugar and lipid metabolism.
- Protects cells from oxidative stress due to its rich antioxidant content.

The primary mechanism of action for Cassia grandis pod is largely attributed to its dominant compound, kaempferol-3-glucoside, which drives many of its observed bioactivities. It exhibits strong anti-cholinesterase (AChE/BChE) and α-amylase inhibition, potentially impacting neurocognitive function and glucose metabolism, respectively. Additionally, various phenolic compounds like epicatechin and rutin contribute to its potent antimicrobial, antiviral, and anti-inflammatory effects, while prebiotic fibers nourish the gut microbiome.

Preliminary research, primarily from in vitro and animal studies, indicates Cassia grandis possesses properties supporting respiratory and immune functions, exploring its antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory effects. Emerging evidence, based on compositional analysis, highlights high levels of kaempferol-3-glucoside and other phenolics, suggesting benefits for gut health, detoxification pathways, and metabolic regulation. Specific research also demonstrates strong anti-cholinesterase and α-amylase inhibitory activities; however, human clinical trials detailing specific outcomes and sample sizes are not extensively reported in the current literature.