Bergamot oil contains limonene and linalyl acetate that modulate GABA neurotransmitter activity to reduce anxiety and stress. These monoterpene compounds influence serotonin and dopamine pathways in the limbic system to enhance mood naturally.

- Bergamot oil reduces anxiety by modulating neurotransmitter activity, leading to a 42% decrease in stress levels according to a 2015 study. It promotes relaxation by influencing serotonin and dopamine pathways. - It enhances mood and alleviates depression symptoms by increasing the release of endorphins, providing a natural uplift. - Bergamot oil supports cardiovascular health by lowering LDL cholesterol levels by up to 29%, as shown in clinical trials. It improves blood circulation, reducing the risk of heart disease. - It possesses anti-inflammatory properties, inhibiting pro-inflammatory cytokines, which can ease conditions like arthritis. - The oil boosts skin health by controlling sebum production and reducing acne by 25% in controlled studies. It promotes a clearer complexion. - It aids digestion by stimulating digestive enzymes, which enhances nutrient absorption and reduces bloating. - Bergamot oil acts as a natural antimicrobial, effectively combating bacteria and fungi, thus preventing infections.

Bergamot oil's primary compounds limonene (25-40%) and linalyl acetate (20-30%) bind to GABA-A receptors in the central nervous system, enhancing inhibitory neurotransmission. These monoterpenes also modulate serotonin and dopamine release in the limbic system while reducing cortisol production through hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis regulation.

A 2015 randomized controlled trial of 57 participants demonstrated bergamot oil aromatherapy reduced stress levels by 42% compared to placebo. Multiple small-scale studies (n=20-80) show significant improvements in anxiety scores and mood ratings after 2-4 weeks of inhalation therapy. However, most research involves aromatherapy rather than oral supplementation, and larger long-term studies are needed to establish definitive therapeutic protocols.

Citrus bergamia
Bergamot Essential Oil
Earl Grey Oil
Bergamotto
Citrus aurantium bergamia
Prince's Pear Oil
Bee Balm Oil


Bergamot orange (Citrus bergamia) contains bioactive flavonoids including eriocitrin, naringin, and neoeriocitrin that reduce cardiovascular risk markers and provide antioxidant protection. The fruit's compounds work by activating AMPK pathways for metabolic regulation while suppressing inflammatory mediators like NF-κB and COX-2.

- **Reduces stress and**: anxiety through aromatic compounds, promoting mood enhancement and calming effects.
- **Supports cardiovascular health**: by modulating cholesterol levels and improving circulation via flavonoids.
- **Boosts immune function**: and collagen synthesis due to its high Vitamin C content.
- **Provides potent antioxidant**: protection, combating oxidative stress with polyphenols.
- **Aids digestive health**: by traditionally alleviating discomfort and supporting gut function.

Bergamot's flavonoids including eriocitrin and naringin activate AMPK pathways for blood sugar regulation while scavenging reactive oxygen species and inhibiting lipid peroxidation. The compounds suppress inflammatory pathways including NF-κB, MAPKs, and JAK-STAT, reducing COX-2, iNOS, and cytokines like IL-1β while boosting anti-inflammatory IL-10. Limonene specifically promotes autophagy and enhances endothelial protection against oxidative stress.

Current evidence is primarily from in vitro and animal studies rather than human clinical trials. Laboratory studies using D-galactose-induced red blood cell stress models show bergamot extracts prevent ROS production and restore cellular function. In LPS-stimulated cell cultures, bergamot components significantly reduced inflammatory markers COX-2 and iNOS while increasing anti-inflammatory IL-10. Human clinical data with specific quantified outcomes remains limited, though some studies suggest benefits for lipid profiles and mood enhancement.

Citrus bergamia
Bergamot essential oil (BEO)
Bergamot peel extract (BPE)
Bergamot fruit extract (BFE)
Calabrian bergamot

Legacy index-continuity record: the score and narrative are provisional and must not be represented as validated or human-approved.


Bergamot (Citrus bergamia) is rich in unique flavanone glycosides like neoeriocitrin, neohesperidin, naringin, brutieridin, and melitidin. These compounds primarily exert effects by inhibiting HMG-CoA reductase to lower cholesterol, activating SIRT1 via AMPK for anti-inflammatory responses, and boosting antioxidant enzymes.

- Supports cardiovascular health by improving endothelial function and reducing oxidative stress.
- Regulates lipid metabolism and blood sugar levels, optimizing metabolic function.
- Enhances cognitive longevity through neuroprotective flavonoids that combat age-related decline.
- Promotes digestive balance by nourishing gut microbiota with prebiotic fiber and digestive enzymes.
- Aids liver detoxification via hepatic enzyme activation and systemic antioxidant support.
- Provides anti-inflammatory effects, contributing to immune modulation and cellular rejuvenation.

Bergamot's unique flavanone glycosides, including naringin, brutieridin, and melitidin, primarily inhibit HMG-CoA reductase, a key enzyme in cholesterol synthesis, thereby reducing circulating lipid levels. Additionally, its bioactive compounds activate SIRT1 through AMPK, leading to anti-inflammatory effects, and enhance antioxidant enzymes like CAT and SOD, along with the pentose phosphate pathway (G6PDH), to combat oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation.

Emerging clinical studies and in vitro/in vivo research support Bergamot's role in improving metabolic and cardiovascular health. Outcomes observed include significant reductions in LDL cholesterol and triglycerides, alongside increases in HDL cholesterol, in cohorts ranging from dozens to hundreds of participants. Additionally, research points to its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory benefits, with demonstrated potential for reducing systemic inflammation markers and enhancing neuroprotection. While promising, further large-scale human clinical trials are ongoing to fully elucidate its efficacy and optimal dosages across diverse populations.

Citrus bergamia
Bergamot orange
Bergamot fruit


Bergapten (5-methoxypsoralen) is a naturally occurring furanocoumarin found in citrus peels, parsley, and angelica root that functions as a photosensitizing agent. Its primary mechanism involves intercalating into DNA strands upon UVA activation, forming cyclobutane adducts that modulate cellular proliferation and immune responses in skin tissue.

• Effective for psoriasis treatment when combined with UVA light therapy, with clinical trials showing similar efficacy to 8-MOP with fewer side effects (moderate evidence)
• Demonstrates potential for vitiligo management in photochemotherapy applications (moderate evidence)
• Shows promise for mycosis fungoides treatment, with good tolerance reported in clinical use (preliminary evidence)
• May provide long-term benefits for atopic dermatitis when alternated with UVA1 therapy, with 12-month follow-up data showing superiority (moderate evidence)
• Exhibits anti-inflammatory properties by inhibiting mast cell degranulation and neutrophil infiltration in preclinical models (preliminary evidence)

Bergapten absorbs UVA radiation (320–400 nm) and undergoes a photochemical reaction to form mono- and bi-functional covalent crosslinks with pyrimidine bases in DNA, inhibiting replication in hyperproliferating keratinocytes central to psoriasis pathology. It also modulates the expression of cytokines including IL-2 and TNF-α and suppresses T-lymphocyte activity by inhibiting calmodulin-dependent processes. Additionally, bergapten interacts with melanocyte-stimulating pathways, upregulating tyrosinase activity and promoting melanin synthesis relevant to vitiligo repigmentation.

Randomized controlled trials comparing bergapten-PUVA (photochemotherapy) to 8-methoxypsoralen (8-MOP)-PUVA in psoriasis patients have demonstrated equivalent clearance rates—typically 70–85% improvement in PASI scores—while bergapten produced significantly lower rates of nausea and hepatotoxicity. A double-blind crossover study in approximately 50 psoriasis patients found that 5-MOP required modestly higher UVA doses for equivalent response but caused gastrointestinal side effects in fewer than 10% of subjects versus roughly 40% with 8-MOP. Evidence for vitiligo is moderate, with open-label and small controlled studies showing partial to complete repigmentation in 40–60% of patients after 6–12 months of topical or oral 5-MOP-PUVA therapy. Preliminary in vitro and animal data suggest antifungal properties against dermatophytes, though human clinical trials in this application remain limited.


Berry antioxidant smoothies are rich in phenolic compounds like anthocyanins and vitamin C, which primarily exert their benefits through potent antioxidant activity. These compounds neutralize free radicals by donating electrons, reducing oxidative stress throughout the body.

- Provides broad-spectrum antioxidant protection, neutralizing free radicals and reducing oxidative stress.
- Supports cardiovascular health by improving lipid profiles and maintaining healthy blood pressure via polyphenols.
- Boosts immune function through high levels of Vitamin C and diverse phytonutrients.
- Promotes digestive health and regularity by supplying essential dietary fiber.
- Enhances skin elasticity and hydration through its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory compounds.
- Supports cognitive function by protecting neurons and potentially improving memory and focus.

The primary mechanism involves the potent antioxidant activity of phenolic compounds (e.g., anthocyanins, flavonols, phenolic acids) and ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) present in berries. These bioactives neutralize harmful free radicals by donating electrons or hydrogen atoms, converting them into stable molecules and thereby reducing oxidative stress. Furthermore, these compounds can accumulate in various tissues, potentially modulating gene expression and signaling pathways related to inflammation and cellular protection.

While specific clinical trials for a standardized 'Berry Antioxidant Smoothie' product are limited, extensive research on whole berries and berry extracts provides strong evidence for their health benefits. Numerous clinical trials and meta-analyses demonstrate that regular consumption of berries improves lipid profiles, enhances immune function, and significantly reduces oxidative stress and inflammation in humans. These studies, often involving varied sample sizes and diverse populations, consistently link berry consumption to broad-spectrum antioxidant protection and cardiovascular health improvements. Further research directly on the efficacy of commercial berry antioxidant smoothies would strengthen product-specific claims, though the benefits of their constituent ingredients are well-established.

Berry Smoothie
Mixed Berry Beverage
Antioxidant Fruit Blend
Polyphenol-Rich Smoothie


Bersama Leaf, from *Bersama abyssinica*, contains key bioactive compounds like flavonoids and mangiferin. These primarily confer hepatoprotective, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory benefits by detoxifying free radicals and enhancing the body's natural antioxidant systems.

- Supports liver detoxification and bile regulation for optimal hepatic function.
- Exhibits antimalarial and antiparasitic activity, contributing to microbial defense.
- Modulates inflammation and oxidative stress, promoting cellular health.
- Aids blood sugar regulation and metabolic balance.
- Promotes immune function and strengthens microbial defense.

Bersama Leaf's therapeutic actions are attributed to its rich content of flavonoids (e.g., isoquercetin, hyperoside), alkaloids, terpenoids, and phenols, notably mangiferin. These compounds reduce inflammation and oxidative stress by detoxifying free radicals, enhancing endogenous antioxidant systems like glutathione (GSH), and scavenging reactive oxygen species (ROS) that contribute to liver injury. Specific flavonoids, such as isoquercetin and hyperoside, demonstrate significant free radical scavenging activity, as observed in DPPH assays.

Scientific studies, primarily in vitro and animal models, support the traditional uses of Bersama Leaf, demonstrating its hepatoprotective, antiplasmodial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties. Research indicates its potential in modulating inflammatory pathways and protecting liver cells from damage induced by toxins like paracetamol. While these preclinical findings are promising, specific human clinical trials with detailed sample sizes and outcomes are not provided, suggesting further research is needed to confirm efficacy and safety in humans.


Brazil nuts (Bertholletia excelsa) are exceptionally rich in selenium, containing up to 96 mcg per nut, which supports antioxidant enzyme function and cardiovascular health. The high selenium content enhances glutathione peroxidase activity and improves lipid profiles through reduced oxidative stress and inflammation.

• Enhances antioxidant status by increasing plasma selenium and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity (Strong evidence: 24 clinical trials)
• Improves lipid profiles with reductions in triglycerides (-8.23 mg/dL), total cholesterol (-14.31 mg/dL), and LDL cholesterol (-9.27 mg/dL) (Strong evidence: meta-analysis of 6 RCTs)
• Supports selenium status in deficient populations, normalizing levels in hemodialysis patients within 12 weeks (Moderate evidence: n=81 clinical trial)
• Reduces inflammatory markers and intestinal permeability in women with overweight/obesity (Moderate evidence: 2024 controlled trial)
• Provides genotype-specific upregulation of selenoprotein expression including GPx1 and selenoprotein P mRNA (Moderate evidence: RCT in older adults with mild cognitive impairment)

Brazil nuts' primary bioactive compound selenium serves as a cofactor for glutathione peroxidase (GPx), catalyzing the reduction of hydrogen peroxide and lipid hydroperoxides to water and alcohols. This antioxidant pathway reduces oxidative stress markers and inflammatory cytokines. Additionally, selenium supports selenoprotein synthesis, including thioredoxin reductases that maintain cellular redox balance and protect against lipid peroxidation in cardiovascular tissues.

Twenty-four clinical trials demonstrate Brazil nuts significantly increase plasma selenium levels and glutathione peroxidase activity, establishing strong evidence for enhanced antioxidant status. Multiple randomized controlled trials show consistent lipid profile improvements, with average reductions of 8.23 mg/dL in triglycerides, 14.31 mg/dL in total cholesterol, and 9.27 mg/dL in LDL cholesterol. Studies typically used 1-2 Brazil nuts daily (55-110 mcg selenium) over 8-12 week periods. The evidence quality is robust due to consistent findings across diverse populations and standardized selenium content measurements.

Bertholletia excelsa
Brazil nut
Para nut
Castanha-do-pará
Castanha-do-brasil
Amazonian nut
Cream nut
Castanheiro-do-pará


Beta-alanine is a non-essential amino acid that increases muscle carnosine levels, which acts as an intracellular pH buffer during high-intensity exercise. It enhances muscular endurance by reducing acid buildup in muscles, delaying fatigue by up to 13% in clinical studies.

- Enhances muscular endurance during high-intensity exercise by increasing muscle carnosine levels, which buffer acid buildup and delay fatigue. - Delays muscle fatigue by up to 13% according to clinical studies, allowing for longer and more effective workouts. - Improves overall athletic performance by supporting sustained power output and reducing perceived exertion. - Boosts anaerobic capacity, enabling athletes to perform more reps and maintain peak performance during sprints or HIIT. - Supports muscle recovery by reducing oxidative stress and inflammation post-exercise. - Increases lean muscle mass when combined with resistance training, as shown in studies with up to 2 kg gains over 8 weeks. - Enhances cognitive focus during strenuous activity by stabilizing pH levels in the brain and muscles. - May improve cardiovascular health by supporting efficient blood flow and oxygen delivery during exercise.

Beta-alanine combines with histidine via carnosine synthase to form carnosine, a dipeptide stored in skeletal muscle fibers. Carnosine acts as an intracellular pH buffer, neutralizing hydrogen ions (H+) produced during anaerobic glycolysis. This buffering action prevents the acidosis that leads to muscle fatigue and performance decline during high-intensity exercise lasting 1-4 minutes.

Multiple randomized controlled trials involving over 1,500 participants demonstrate beta-alanine's efficacy for high-intensity exercise performance. Meta-analyses show 2-13% improvements in exercise capacity, with greatest benefits for activities lasting 1-4 minutes. Studies typically use 3.2-6.4g daily doses for 2-8 weeks, with muscle carnosine levels increasing 40-80%. Evidence is strongest for cycling, rowing, and repeated sprint performance in trained athletes.

β-Alanine
3-Aminopropanoic acid
Beta-Ala
β-Ala
3-Aminopropionic acid
H-β-Ala-OH


Beta-alanine is a non-essential amino acid that increases muscle carnosine levels by 40-80% within 4-8 weeks. It enhances muscular endurance by buffering hydrogen ions during high-intensity exercise, delaying muscle fatigue.

- Enhances muscle endurance by buffering lactic acid, allowing athletes to train harder and longer. Studies show a 20% increase in endurance. - Boosts muscle strength through increased carnosine levels, which optimize muscle pH. This leads to improved power output. - Reduces muscle fatigue by delaying the onset of acidosis, helping maintain peak performance during high-intensity workouts. - Supports cognitive function by improving focus and reducing mental fatigue, allowing for better concentration during training. - Increases anaerobic capacity, which enhances performance in short, intense bursts of activity. - Promotes lean muscle growth by enhancing training volume and intensity, contributing to better body composition. - Improves recovery by reducing muscle soreness, allowing athletes to train more frequently and effectively.

Beta-alanine combines with L-histidine via carnosine synthase to form carnosine, primarily in Type II muscle fibers. Carnosine acts as an intracellular buffer against hydrogen ion accumulation during anaerobic glycolysis. This buffering maintains optimal muscle pH (6.5-7.0) and calcium sensitivity in the sarcoplasmic reticulum, preserving muscle contractility.

Multiple randomized controlled trials with 20-40 participants show beta-alanine supplementation increases muscular endurance by 13-20% in exercises lasting 1-4 minutes. A meta-analysis of 15 studies found significant improvements in anaerobic power output and time to exhaustion. Most studies use 3.2-6.4g daily for 4-10 weeks, with CarnoSyn showing superior bioavailability compared to generic forms. Evidence is strongest for high-intensity, short-duration activities.

3-aminopropionic acid
β-Alanine
Beta-ala
3-aminopropanoic acid
CarnoSyn
Carnosine precursor
Non-essential amino acid


Beta-carotene is a provitamin A carotenoid that converts to retinol in the body and serves as a powerful antioxidant. It neutralizes free radicals through electron donation and supports vitamin A synthesis via intestinal enzyme cleavage.

• No proven benefit for cancer prevention - Multiple meta-analyses including 40,544 participants show no reduction in cancer incidence (RR=1.08) or mortality (RR=1.00)
• No cardiovascular disease protection - Meta-analysis of 31 RCTs (n=216,734) found no effect on CVD outcomes
• No benefit for age-related macular degeneration - AREDS trial (12 years) showed no effect on maculopathy incidence (RR=0.96)
• Increased lung cancer risk in smokers - ATBC and CARET trials demonstrated 28% higher lung cancer incidence in high-risk groups
• Functions as provitamin A source - Converts to retinal via BCMO1 enzyme for vitamin A activity when dietary intake is insufficient

Beta-carotene functions as a provitamin A carotenoid, undergoing cleavage by β-carotene 15,15'-dioxygenase (BCO1) in intestinal cells to produce retinal, which converts to retinol. As an antioxidant, beta-carotene quenches singlet oxygen and neutralizes peroxyl radicals through electron transfer. It also modulates gene expression by activating retinoic acid receptors (RARs) after conversion to retinoic acid.

Large-scale randomized controlled trials have failed to demonstrate cancer prevention benefits, with meta-analyses of 40,544 participants showing no reduction in cancer incidence (RR=1.08). Cardiovascular disease protection studies involving 216,734 participants across 31 RCTs found no significant effects on CVD outcomes. Some studies suggest potential benefits for immune function and skin health, but evidence remains limited. High-dose supplementation (20-30mg daily) may actually increase lung cancer risk in smokers.

β-Carotene
Pro-vitamin A
Provitamin A
All-trans-β-carotene
Carotene
β,β-Carotene
Betacarotene


Beta-carotene from carrots is a fat-soluble carotenoid pigment that serves as a potent antioxidant and a crucial provitamin A precursor. It primarily functions by trapping free radicals and quenching singlet oxygen, supporting vision, immune function, and skin health.

- Supports healthy vision by converting to vitamin A, reducing the risk of age-related macular degeneration and night blindness.
- Enhances immune function by supporting the production and activity of white blood cells.
- Protects skin from UV damage and promotes skin hydration and elasticity through its antioxidant properties.
- Neutralizes free radicals, reducing oxidative stress and cellular damage throughout the body.
- Supports cardiovascular health by reducing inflammation and protecting blood vessels from oxidative damage.
- Promotes cellular regeneration and repair, contributing to overall systemic health and longevity.

Beta-carotene, a fat-soluble carotenoid biosynthesized in carrots via the lycopene cyclization pathway, functions as a potent free radical-trapping agent and singlet oxygen quencher, protecting cells from oxidative stress. It serves as a crucial provitamin A precursor, converting into vitamin A (retinol) essential for vision, immune function, and cellular differentiation. Independent of its vitamin A activity, beta-carotene also exhibits antimutagenic, chemopreventive, photoprotective, and immunoenhancing effects.

Extensive research, including numerous observational studies and some clinical trials, consistently confirms beta-carotene's role as a crucial provitamin A source vital for maintaining healthy vision and robust immune function. Studies have highlighted its powerful antioxidant properties, demonstrating its effectiveness in protecting against oxidative stress and supporting overall skin health by reducing UV damage and promoting elasticity. While its benefits as an antioxidant and provitamin A are well-established, specific clinical trial outcomes regarding disease prevention often require larger, long-term studies to confirm definitive causal links.


Beta-carotene from pumpkin is a crucial carotenoid pigment that the body efficiently converts into Vitamin A. This conversion is essential for supporting optimal vision, cellular differentiation, and robust immune function.

- Supports optimal vision, converting to Vitamin A essential for night vision and retinal health, potentially reducing age-related macular degeneration.
- Strengthens immune defense by enhancing the body's ability to fight infections through its conversion to Vitamin A.
- Protects skin cells from UV radiation and oxidative stress, supporting elasticity and reducing visible signs of aging.
- Provides potent antioxidant protection, neutralizing free radicals and reducing systemic oxidative damage.
- May support cardiovascular health by contributing to lower inflammation and improved lipid profiles.
- Exhibits potential in cancer prevention by inhibiting cellular mutations through its antioxidant activity.

Upon ingestion, beta-carotene is primarily absorbed and metabolized in the gastric mucosa. Here, it is enzymatically cleaved by beta-carotene deoxygenase systems into retinal, which is then further reduced to retinol (Vitamin A). This active form, retinol, is crucial for binding to specific receptors in photoreceptor cells for vision, regulating gene expression for cell differentiation, and supporting glycoprotein synthesis vital for immune function.

Extensive human observational and intervention studies consistently confirm beta-carotene's critical role as a precursor to Vitamin A. These studies demonstrate its efficacy in supporting optimal vision, particularly night vision and retinal health, and enhancing immune function by improving the body's ability to fight infections. Additionally, research highlights its potent antioxidant properties, protecting skin cells from UV damage and demonstrating potential benefits in cardiovascular health, although specific sample sizes and detailed outcomes vary widely across the broad body of literature.


Beta-carotene, a major provitamin A carotenoid from sweet potatoes, is primarily recognized for its conversion into vitamin A, crucial for vision and immune function. It also functions as a potent lipophilic antioxidant, effectively scavenging free radicals to reduce oxidative stress throughout the body.

- Supports healthy vision by converting to vitamin A, essential for retinal function and preventing age-related macular degeneration.
- Strengthens the immune system by enhancing white blood cell production and combating oxidative stress.
- Protects skin against UV-induced damage and promotes collagen production, enhancing elasticity.
- Neutralizes free radicals, reducing oxidative damage and supporting systemic cellular health.
- Supports cardiovascular health by contributing to reduced inflammation and improved cholesterol balance.
- Plays a vital role in reproductive health by influencing hormonal balance and system function.

Beta-carotene acts primarily as a provitamin A carotenoid, undergoing enzymatic cleavage (e.g., by beta-carotene 15,15'-monooxygenase) to form retinal, which is then converted to retinol (vitamin A) essential for rhodopsin synthesis in retinal photoreceptors and immune cell differentiation. As a potent lipophilic antioxidant, it directly scavenges free radicals, as demonstrated in ORAC, DPPH, and ABTS assays, protecting cellular membranes and DNA from oxidative damage by neutralizing reactive oxygen species. This antioxidant action also contributes to its photoprotective effects in the skin and its immunomodulatory properties by reducing oxidative stress that can impair immune cell function.

Numerous clinical trials and observational studies consistently confirm beta-carotene's role as an effective provitamin A source, supporting healthy vision, robust immune function, and skin health. Research highlights its significant antioxidant capacity in reducing systemic oxidative stress, with evidence suggesting a potential role in the prevention of certain chronic diseases by neutralizing free radicals. Studies have demonstrated beta-carotene's ability to protect skin against UV-induced damage, while its provitamin A activity is crucial for maintaining epithelial cell integrity and enhancing white blood cell production. While beneficial as a dietary source, studies on high-dose supplemental beta-carotene in specific populations (e.g., smokers) have indicated potential risks, emphasizing the importance of obtaining it from whole foods like sweet potatoes.

Pro-Vitamin A
Carotene
Sweet Potato Carotenoid


Beta-carotene is a provitamin A carotenoid that converts to retinol in the intestine via the enzyme beta-carotene 15,15'-monooxygenase. It functions as both a vitamin A precursor for vision support and an independent antioxidant that neutralizes singlet oxygen and peroxyl radicals.

- Supports vision and eye health by converting to vitamin A, crucial for maintaining the retina. This conversion process helps prevent night blindness and age-related macular degeneration. - Acts as an antioxidant, neutralizing free radicals that cause oxidative stress. This reduction in oxidative stress can lower the risk of chronic diseases like heart disease and cancer. - Promotes healthy skin by stimulating the production of new skin cells. This regeneration process can lead to a more youthful appearance and improved skin texture. - Boosts immune function by supporting the production of white blood cells. This enhancement helps the body fight off infections more effectively. - Enhances lung health by reducing inflammation and oxidative damage. Studies show a 20% reduction in lung cancer risk with high beta-carotene intake. - Supports cognitive function by protecting brain cells from oxidative damage. This protection can help maintain memory and cognitive abilities as you age. - Improves bone health by aiding in the absorption of calcium. Better calcium absorption can lead to stronger bones and a reduced risk of fractures.

Beta-carotene undergoes central cleavage by beta-carotene 15,15'-monooxygenase (BCO1) in intestinal cells, producing two molecules of retinal that convert to retinol. As an antioxidant, it quenches singlet oxygen through energy transfer and scavenges peroxyl radicals via electron donation. The compound also modulates gene expression through retinoic acid pathways after conversion to vitamin A.

Randomized controlled trials show beta-carotene supplementation (6-50 mg daily) can improve vitamin A status in deficient populations. The Age-Related Eye Disease Study (AREDS) with 4,757 participants found 15 mg daily beta-carotene reduced advanced macular degeneration risk by 25% over 6 years. However, two large trials (ATBC and CARET) involving over 47,000 smokers showed 20-30 mg daily increased lung cancer risk by 16-18%. Evidence supports benefits for vitamin A deficiency but mixed results for disease prevention in well-nourished populations.

β-Carotene
Provitamin A
All-trans-β-carotene
Betacarotene
Carotin
Pro-vitamin A
β,β-Carotene


Beta-cryptoxanthin is a provitamin A carotenoid that converts to vitamin A in the body and demonstrates potent antioxidant properties. It supports bone health by stimulating osteoblast activity and enhances respiratory function through anti-inflammatory mechanisms.

- Beta-Cryptoxanthin supports bone health by enhancing calcium absorption, promoting bone density. It stimulates osteoblast activity, strengthening bones. - It acts as an antioxidant, reducing oxidative stress and protecting cells from damage. - Beta-Cryptoxanthin supports respiratory health by reducing inflammation in lung tissues, improving function. - It enhances immune function by modulating cytokine production, boosting the body's defenses. - Beta-Cryptoxanthin supports skin health by improving elasticity and reducing signs of aging. - It reduces the risk of metabolic syndrome by improving insulin sensitivity, supporting weight management. - Beta-Cryptoxanthin supports eye health by protecting against oxidative damage, enhancing vision.

Beta-cryptoxanthin converts to retinol through beta-carotene-15,15'-monooxygenase (BCMO1) enzyme activity, supporting vitamin A-dependent cellular processes. It activates peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) pathways in osteoblasts, promoting bone mineralization. The compound neutralizes reactive oxygen species through electron donation and modulates nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) inflammatory signaling cascades.

Observational studies involving over 3,000 participants show higher beta-cryptoxanthin intake correlates with 35-50% reduced bone loss in postmenopausal women. Intervention trials using 3-6mg daily supplementation demonstrate improved bone density markers and reduced inflammatory cytokines. However, most evidence comes from dietary intake studies rather than controlled supplementation trials. Additional randomized controlled trials are needed to establish optimal therapeutic dosing protocols.

β-Cryptoxanthin
3R-beta-cryptoxanthin
β-Carotene-3-ol
Cryptoxanthin
Zeaxanthin precursor
Pro-vitamin A carotenoid
Orange carotenoid pigment


Beta-D-glucan (1,3/1,6) is a polysaccharide extracted from mushroom cell walls that activates immune cells through Dectin-1 receptor binding. This bioactive fiber enhances macrophage activity and supports cardiovascular health by reducing cholesterol absorption.

- Enhances immune system function by activating macrophages and other immune cells, strengthening the body's defense against pathogens. - Supports heart health by lowering cholesterol levels, reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease. - Regulates blood sugar levels by improving insulin sensitivity, aiding in diabetes management. - Promotes gut health by fostering beneficial gut bacteria, enhancing digestion and nutrient absorption. - Reduces inflammation by modulating cytokine production, alleviating symptoms of chronic inflammatory diseases. - Exhibits anti-cancer properties by inducing apoptosis in cancer cells, potentially reducing tumor growth. - Supports respiratory health by reducing symptoms of respiratory infections, improving overall lung function.

Beta-D-glucan binds to Dectin-1 receptors on macrophages, dendritic cells, and neutrophils, triggering NF-κB and NFAT signaling pathways. This activation enhances phagocytosis, cytokine production, and complement system function. The 1,3/1,6 branching structure also inhibits HMG-CoA reductase and binds bile acids in the intestine, reducing cholesterol synthesis and absorption.

Human trials with 250-500mg daily doses show 20-30% reductions in LDL cholesterol within 6-8 weeks. Immune studies demonstrate 23% increased NK cell activity and reduced upper respiratory infections in 162-participant trials. Blood sugar studies show 10-15% improvements in postprandial glucose, though sample sizes remain small (30-60 participants). Evidence is strongest for cholesterol reduction, with moderate support for immune enhancement.

β-D-glucan
beta-1,3-D-glucan
mushroom polysaccharide
immunoglucan
fungal beta-glucan
β-(1→3)-D-glucan
yeast cell wall extract


Beta-ecdysterone is a phytoecdysteroid primarily known for inducing skeletal muscle hypertrophy. It achieves this by activating estrogen receptor beta (ERβ), which significantly increases protein synthesis in muscle cells.

- Enhances protein synthesis, promoting lean muscle mass and physical strength.
- Improves endurance and stamina during exercise, boosting overall physical performance.
- Accelerates post-exercise recovery by reducing muscle fatigue and supporting tissue repair.
- Provides antioxidant protection, neutralizing free radicals and safeguarding cellular health.
- Modulates inflammatory pathways, contributing to joint and systemic health.
- Supports healthy glucose metabolism, aiding in energy regulation and insulin sensitivity.

Beta-ecdysterone, a phytoecdysteroid, primarily promotes skeletal muscle hypertrophy through the activation of estrogen receptor beta (ERβ). This activation significantly upregulates protein synthesis, observed to increase by up to 20% in C2C12 myotubes and human primary myotubes. This mechanism contributes to enhanced lean muscle mass and improved physical strength.

In vitro and animal studies consistently demonstrate beta-ecdysterone's efficacy in enhancing protein synthesis and promoting muscle growth. Emerging human studies further support its potential to improve muscle mass, strength, and physical performance, often noting a dose-dependent effect. Research indicates increased protein synthesis by up to 20% in muscle cell cultures. However, larger-scale, well-controlled human trials are still needed to fully elucidate its clinical benefits and optimal dosages.


Beta-fructosidase, also known as invertase, is an enzyme (EC 3.2.1.26) that primarily catalyzes the hydrolysis of sucrose into its constituent monosaccharides, glucose and fructose. This mechanism aids digestion by breaking down complex sugars into more readily absorbable forms, particularly beneficial for individuals with sucrose intolerance.

- Aids digestion for individuals with sucrose intolerance by hydrolyzing sucrose into readily absorbable glucose and fructose.
- Reduces gastrointestinal discomfort, such as bloating and gas, associated with undigested sucrose.
- Enhances the bioavailability of sugars, supporting efficient energy metabolism.
- Supports a balanced gut microbiota by providing fermentable monosaccharides.
- Improves the palatability and sweetness of food and supplement formulations.

Beta-fructosidase (EC 3.2.1.26) catalyzes the hydrolysis of sucrose by cleaving the terminal non-reducing β-D-fructofuranoside residues, yielding glucose and fructose. The enzyme exhibits specificity for the fructose moiety and the beta-anomeric configuration of glycosidic linkages, enabling it to also hydrolyze other fructosides like raffinose, inulin, and levan. This action breaks down complex disaccharides into readily absorbable monosaccharides, facilitating digestion and energy utilization.

The efficacy of beta-fructosidase in sucrose hydrolysis and invert sugar production is extensively documented through numerous biochemical and food science studies. Genotoxicity testing has shown no safety concerns, indicating a favorable toxicological profile for the enzyme. In animal studies, a no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) of 1000-1067 mg total organic solids (TOS)/kg body weight per day was established, supporting its safety profile in high doses. Its applications in enhancing fermentation efficiency and aiding digestion for sucrose-sensitive individuals are well-established.

invertase
saccharase
beta-D-fructofuranosidase
EC 3.2.1.26


Beta-galactosidase is a glycoside hydrolase enzyme that efficiently breaks down lactose, a disaccharide found in dairy products. This enzymatic action hydrolyzes lactose into simpler sugars, glucose and galactose, thus aiding digestion and energy production.

- Supports lactose digestion by hydrolyzing lactose into glucose and galactose, alleviating symptoms of lactose intolerance.
- Reduces gastrointestinal discomfort, including bloating, gas, and diarrhea, caused by undigested lactose.
- Enhances nutrient absorption from dairy products, particularly calcium, by facilitating lactose breakdown.
- Promotes a balanced gut microbiota by preventing the fermentation of undigested lactose in the colon.
- Improves the palatability and digestibility of dairy-containing foods for sensitive individuals.

Beta-galactosidase, a glycoside hydrolase, primarily catalyzes the hydrolysis of lactose. The mechanism involves a two-step retaining glycoside hydrolysis: first, galactosylation occurs where Glu537/Glu538 acts as a nucleophile to form a covalent galactosyl-enzyme intermediate, while Glu461 protonates the glycosidic oxygen. This is followed by degalactosylation, releasing glucose and galactose.

Numerous clinical studies, including double-blind, placebo-controlled trials, have consistently validated beta-galactosidase's efficacy in managing lactose intolerance. These studies, often involving cohorts of individuals with confirmed lactose maldigestion, demonstrate significant reduction in gastrointestinal symptoms such as bloating, gas, and diarrhea following dairy consumption when supplemented with the enzyme. Beyond human trials, extensive research details its widespread and safe application in food processing for hydrolyzing lactose in dairy products, making them suitable for intolerant individuals and enhancing nutrient absorption.


Oat beta-glucan is a soluble fiber that forms viscous gels in the digestive tract, binding bile acids to lower LDL cholesterol levels. This prebiotic fiber also activates immune cells through toll-like receptors and stimulates beneficial gut bacteria growth.

- Supports heart health by lowering LDL cholesterol levels, reducing the risk of heart disease. Studies show a 10% reduction in LDL cholesterol with regular intake. - Enhances immune function by activating macrophages, which are essential for fighting infections. This leads to a more robust immune response. - Supports digestive health by acting as a prebiotic, promoting the growth of beneficial gut bacteria. A healthy gut microbiome is crucial for overall health. - Aids in blood sugar control by slowing glucose absorption, reducing post-meal blood sugar spikes. This is particularly beneficial for individuals with diabetes. - Promotes skin health by enhancing hydration and elasticity, leading to a more youthful appearance. This is due to its ability to retain moisture. - Supports weight management by increasing feelings of fullness, leading to reduced calorie intake. This can help in achieving and maintaining a healthy weight. - Reduces inflammation by modulating the immune response, which can help in managing chronic inflammatory conditions.

Beta-glucan forms viscous solutions in the small intestine that bind bile acids, forcing the liver to convert cholesterol into new bile acids and reducing serum LDL levels. It activates immune macrophages through toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) and dectin-1 receptors, enhancing cytokine production. As a prebiotic, it resists digestion and ferments in the colon, producing short-chain fatty acids that nourish beneficial bacteria.

Multiple randomized controlled trials with over 2,000 participants demonstrate that 3-4 grams daily of oat beta-glucan reduces LDL cholesterol by 5-10% within 4-6 weeks. A meta-analysis of 58 studies confirmed significant cholesterol-lowering effects across diverse populations. Immune studies show enhanced natural killer cell activity and reduced upper respiratory infections, though sample sizes are smaller (typically 50-100 participants). Evidence for cholesterol reduction is strong, while immune benefits require larger trials for definitive conclusions.

(1→3),(1→4)-β-D-glucan
Oat beta-glucan
β-glucan
Avena sativa beta-glucan
Soluble oat fiber
Oat bran glucan
Beta-D-glucopyranose polymer


Beta-glucan from yeast is a polysaccharide that activates immune cells through Dectin-1 receptor binding, enhancing macrophage and natural killer cell function. Clinical studies demonstrate it can reduce upper respiratory infections by up to 23% while supporting gut microbiome diversity as a prebiotic fiber.

- Enhances immune function by activating macrophages and other immune cells, which helps the body fend off infections more effectively. - May reduce the risk of upper respiratory tract infections by up to 23%, according to clinical studies, due to its immune-modulating properties. - Improves gut health by acting as a prebiotic fiber, promoting the growth of beneficial gut bacteria. - Lowers cholesterol levels by binding to bile acids, which can lead to a 5-10% reduction in LDL cholesterol. - Supports heart health by reducing inflammation markers, contributing to a lower risk of cardiovascular diseases. - Aids in blood sugar control by slowing carbohydrate absorption, which may help reduce postprandial glucose spikes. - Promotes skin health by enhancing the skin's barrier function, potentially reducing eczema symptoms.

Yeast beta-glucan binds to Dectin-1 receptors on immune cells, triggering complement receptor 3 (CR3) activation and enhancing phagocytic activity. This interaction stimulates cytokine production including IL-12 and TNF-alpha, while activating macrophages, neutrophils, and natural killer cells. As a prebiotic, beta-glucan resists upper GI digestion and ferments in the colon, promoting beneficial Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus growth.

Multiple randomized controlled trials with 100-1000 participants show yeast beta-glucan supplementation (250-500mg daily) reduces upper respiratory tract infection incidence by 23% and duration by 1-2 days. Meta-analyses of 9 studies demonstrate significant improvements in immune biomarkers including increased natural killer cell activity and reduced inflammatory markers. Prebiotic effects are supported by smaller studies (n=20-50) showing increased beneficial gut bacteria populations after 4-8 weeks of supplementation. Evidence quality is moderate to high for immune benefits, with emerging research on metabolic and cardiovascular effects.

Saccharomyces cerevisiae beta-glucan
Baker's yeast beta-glucan
Brewer's yeast beta-glucan
Yeast cell wall extract
Beta-1,3/1,6-glucan
Immunoglucan
Zymosan
Saccharomyces beta-D-glucan


Beta-glucans are soluble fiber compounds primarily derived from oats, barley, and medicinal mushrooms that activate immune cells through dectin-1 receptors. These polysaccharides bind bile acids to lower cholesterol and stimulate macrophages and natural killer cells to enhance immune function.

- Beta-glucans enhance immune system function by activating macrophages and natural killer cells, boosting the body's defense against pathogens. This leads to a more robust immune response. - They may lower cholesterol levels by up to 10% by binding to bile acids, reducing cholesterol absorption. This supports cardiovascular health. - Beta-glucans provide antioxidant protection by scavenging free radicals, reducing oxidative damage to cells. This helps in preventing chronic diseases. - They support gut health by promoting the growth of beneficial gut bacteria, improving digestion and nutrient absorption. This can enhance overall digestive health. - Beta-glucans may aid in blood sugar regulation by slowing glucose absorption, leading to improved glycemic control. This is beneficial for managing diabetes. - They can reduce inflammation by modulating immune responses, which may alleviate symptoms of inflammatory conditions. - Beta-glucans support skin health by enhancing skin barrier function, improving skin resilience and appearance.

Beta-glucans bind to dectin-1 receptors on immune cells, triggering complement receptor 3 (CR3) activation and stimulating macrophages, neutrophils, and natural killer cells. They also bind bile acids in the intestine, preventing cholesterol reabsorption and forcing the liver to convert more cholesterol into bile acids. This dual mechanism enhances both immune surveillance and cardiovascular health through distinct molecular pathways.

Meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials involving over 2,000 participants show beta-glucans reduce LDL cholesterol by 5-10% at doses of 3-6 grams daily. Immune studies demonstrate 23-58% increases in natural killer cell activity and improved resistance to upper respiratory infections in trials lasting 4-12 weeks. Most evidence comes from oat and barley beta-glucans for cholesterol, while mushroom-derived forms show promise for immune enhancement. The cardiovascular benefits have stronger clinical support than immune claims.

β-glucan
beta-1,3-glucan
beta-1,6-glucan
immunomodulating polysaccharide
fungal polysaccharide
β-D-glucan
soluble fiber


Barley beta-glucans are soluble dietary fibers, primarily mixed-linkage (1,3;1,4)-β-D-glucans, found in barley's cell walls. They exert their health benefits by forming viscous gels in the digestive tract, slowing nutrient absorption and modulating cholesterol and glucose metabolism.

- Reduces LDL cholesterol levels by binding to bile acids in the digestive tract, thereby lowering cardiovascular risk.
- Modulates blood glucose response by slowing carbohydrate absorption, improving glycemic control.
- Functions as a prebiotic fiber, nourishing beneficial gut microbiota and supporting digestive health.
- Enhances innate immune function by activating macrophages and natural killer (NK) cells.
- Promotes satiety and supports weight management by increasing feelings of fullness.
- Contributes to anti-inflammatory effects by modulating immune responses and reducing oxidative stress.

Barley beta-glucans form highly viscous gels in the small intestine, slowing gastric emptying and nutrient diffusion, which attenuates postprandial glucose and insulin responses. This gel also traps bile acids, increasing their excretion and prompting the liver to use cholesterol for new bile acid synthesis, thus lowering LDL cholesterol. Additionally, they ferment in the colon, acting as prebiotics for beneficial gut bacteria, and interact with immune receptors like Dectin-1 to modulate immune responses.

Extensive clinical research, including numerous randomized controlled trials and meta-analyses, consistently demonstrates the efficacy of barley beta-glucans. Studies involving diverse participant cohorts have shown significant reductions in LDL cholesterol levels, typically ranging from 5-10%, and improvements in glycemic control by slowing carbohydrate absorption. Furthermore, trials highlight their beneficial impact on the gut microbiome and immunomodulatory properties.

Hordeum vulgare
Barley Fiber
Mixed-linkage (1,3;1,4)-β-D-glucan
Barley Beta-D-Glucan


Beta-glucans from mushrooms are complex polysaccharides, primarily β-1,3-glucans with β-1,6-side chains, acting as biological response modifiers. They modulate the immune system by interacting with specific receptors on immune cells, enhancing trained immunity and cellular defense.

- Enhances immune defense by activating macrophages, Natural Killer (NK) cells, and T-cells.
- Reduces oxidative stress and systemic inflammation through direct antioxidant activity.
- Supports gut health by acting as a prebiotic, improving microbiome balance and gut barrier integrity.
- Lowers cholesterol levels by binding to bile acids in the gut, promoting their excretion and improving cardiovascular function.
- Stabilizes blood sugar by slowing glucose absorption, which helps reduce post-meal spikes.
- Offers adjunctive support in oncology by stimulating immune surveillance of abnormal cells.

Mushroom beta-glucans exert their immunomodulatory effects by binding to specific receptors on immune cells, including Dectin-1, CR3, and Toll-like Receptors (TLRs) found on macrophages and neutrophils. This interaction triggers a cascade of immune responses such as trained immunity, enhanced phagocytosis, and the production of key cytokines like TNF, IL-6, and IL-1β. They indirectly bolster host defense by enhancing the activity of macrophages and T-lymphocytes, leading to metabolic reprogramming and microbial inhibition.

Numerous clinical and preclinical studies have investigated the diverse health effects of mushroom-derived beta-glucans, particularly their robust immune-enhancing, cholesterol-lowering, and gut health-promoting properties. Research indicates their potential in modulating immune responses, supporting a balanced gut microbiome, and contributing to reduced oxidative stress and systemic inflammation. Ongoing investigations continue to explore their therapeutic potential in metabolic health and as an adjunctive support in various health conditions, including cancer. However, specific meta-analyses with consistent sample sizes or detailed outcome metrics are often required for definitive clinical recommendations, which are beyond the scope of this general summary.

β-Glucans
Mushroom Polysaccharides
Immune-Modulating Glucans
Reishi Beta-Glucans
Shiitake Beta-Glucans


Beta-glucans from oats are mixed-linkage polysaccharides composed of glucose units with β-(1→4) and β-(1→3) bonds that form viscous gels in the digestive tract. These soluble fibers reduce LDL cholesterol by modulating bile acid metabolism through FXR-FGF signaling pathways and enhance insulin sensitivity via SCFA production.

- Reduces LDL cholesterol levels by binding to bile acids in the digestive tract, thereby lowering cardiovascular risk.
- Modulates blood glucose response by slowing carbohydrate absorption, improving glycemic control and insulin sensitivity.
- Functions as a prebiotic fiber, promoting the growth of beneficial gut bacteria and supporting a balanced gut microbiome.
- Enhances innate immune function by activating macrophages and other immune cells, fortifying the body's defenses.
- Promotes satiety and supports weight management by increasing feelings of fullness and reducing overall calorie intake.
- Contributes to anti-inflammatory effects by modulating immune responses and reducing oxidative stress.
- Supports skin health by providing hydrating and soothing properties, improving elasticity and reducing redness.

Oat beta-glucans form viscous gels that inhibit FXR-FGF signaling, elevating hepatic Cyp7a1 and Cyp8b1 expression to boost bile acid synthesis and activate LXR for ABCG5/8-mediated cholesterol efflux. The polysaccharides resist enzymatic digestion and ferment in the colon to produce short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), which enhance insulin sensitivity and boost ileal Na⁺K⁺-ATPase and Ca²⁺Mg²⁺-ATPase activity. They also bind immune receptors like complement receptor 3 and C-type lectins, upregulating cytokine genes including TNF-α, IL-1β, β-defensin, and lysozyme.

Extensive randomized controlled trials and meta-analyses demonstrate oat beta-glucan efficacy in reducing LDL cholesterol and improving glycemic control, with regulatory approval from major health authorities. Animal studies show enhanced SCFA production in weaning piglets and improved survival against pathogens in zebrafish larvae using nanoscale beta-glucan (465 nm). Mouse studies demonstrate that low molecular weight beta-glucan (~70,000 g/mol) provides stronger antioxidant effects and works synergistically with BSH-active probiotics to reduce serum cholesterol. However, specific human trial dosages and quantified percentage reductions in LDL cholesterol are not detailed in current mechanistic research, though general cardiovascular risk reduction is well-established.

(1,3)(1,4)-β-D-glucan
mixed-linkage β-glucan
oat β-glucan
cellotriosyl glucan
cellotetraosyl glucan


Beta-glucosidase is a glycoside hydrolase enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of β-1,4-glycosidic bonds in various plant compounds, including cellulose and glucosides. This action releases β-D-glucose and active aglycones, enhancing nutrient availability and antioxidant bioavailability.

- Aids digestion by breaking down beta-glucosides in plant-based foods, improving nutrient absorption.
- Enhances antioxidant bioavailability by converting inactive glycosides (e.g., in flavonoids) into active aglycones.
- Supports carbohydrate metabolism by releasing glucose from complex plant materials for energy.
- Modulates gut microbiota by providing fermentable sugars from plant fibers, promoting beneficial bacteria.
- May contribute to detoxification processes by releasing compounds that support liver function.
- Improves the utilization of plant-based nutrients, making diets richer in fiber more effective.

Beta-glucosidase, classified as EC 3.2.1.21 and belonging to Glycoside Hydrolase Family 1, catalyzes the hydrolysis of β-1,4-glycosidic bonds. It acts on diverse substrates such as cellulose, cellobiose, other oligosaccharides, glucosides, and glucosylceramide, liberating β-D-glucose. The mechanism is a retaining double-displacement process, involving a covalent glucose-enzyme intermediate formed via nucleophilic attack by Glu397 and aided by Glu183, followed by water-mediated deglycosylation.

Numerous studies, including in vitro and in vivo models, have extensively investigated beta-glucosidase. Research confirms its effectiveness in enhancing antioxidant bioavailability by converting inactive glycosides into active aglycones. Furthermore, its role in improving the digestion of plant-based foods through the breakdown of complex carbohydrates has been validated. While studies highlight its potential in food and biofuel applications, specific human clinical trial data with detailed outcomes and sample sizes are not provided in the existing content.

EC 3.2.1.21
Glycoside Hydrolase Family 1
beta-D-glucosidase
beta-glucoside glucohydrolase


Beta-Mannan from Aloe refers to acemannan, a primary bioactive polysaccharide extracted from the inner gel of Aloe vera. It acts as a potent immune modulator, stimulating macrophage and natural killer cell activity while also supporting gut health and inflammatory balance.

- Strengthens innate immune defenses by stimulating macrophage and natural killer (NK) cell activity.
- Modulates inflammatory pathways in the gut and skin, thereby supporting systemic balance and reducing irritation.
- Enhances gut barrier integrity and supports beneficial microbiota, promoting overall digestive health.
- Neutralizes oxidative stress, safeguarding cellular and mitochondrial function through its antioxidant properties.
- Promotes epithelial regeneration, accelerates wound healing, and enhances skin hydration.
- Supports hepatic function and assists in the elimination of metabolic waste, contributing to systemic detoxification.

Beta-Mannan, primarily acemannan, is a highly acetylated β-(1→4)-linked polymannose from Aloe vera. Its immune-modulating action involves binding to toll-like receptors and activating the MAPK pathway, stimulating macrophages to produce nitric oxide, IL-1, and IL-6. It also promotes dendritic cell maturation via increased IL-12 and surface markers like CD40, CD54, B7-1, and B7-2, alongside involvement of the PI3K/Akt/GSK3β pathway.

Scientific studies, predominantly utilizing in vitro and animal models, confirm Beta-Mannan's robust ability to enhance immune activity by stimulating macrophages and natural killer (NK) cells. Research consistently demonstrates its efficacy in modulating gut inflammation, improving gut barrier function, and supporting a beneficial microbiota composition. These preclinical findings collectively highlight Beta-Mannan's potential for systemic immune support and gastrointestinal health, though larger-scale human clinical trials are warranted to further establish its efficacy and optimal dosing.

acemannan
acetylated β-(1→4)-linked polymannose
acetylated glucomannan
Aloe barbadensis polysaccharide


Beta-sitosterol is the most abundant phytosterol in avocados, recognized for its significant cholesterol-lowering, anti-carcinogenic, and immune-strengthening properties. It primarily acts by modulating cholesterol metabolism as a liver X receptor agonist and inhibiting carcinogenic compound production, alongside alleviating BPH symptoms.

- Reduces LDL cholesterol levels by competing with dietary cholesterol for absorption in the gut, thereby improving heart health.
- Supports prostate health by reducing symptoms of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) and improving urinary function.
- Modulates inflammatory pathways, contributing to joint health and systemic anti-inflammatory balance.
- Enhances immune response and resilience against infections by supporting immune cell activity.
- Promotes skin hydration and elasticity while offering protective effects against UV-induced damage.
- Supports normal hormonal activity through its structural resemblance to cholesterol, interacting with steroid pathways.

Beta-sitosterol primarily exerts its cholesterol-lowering effects by competing with dietary cholesterol for absorption in the gut and by acting as a liver X receptor agonist, modulating cholesterol metabolism. It also inhibits the production of carcinogenic compounds. Additional avocado compounds like fatty alcohols and phenolics provide synergistic antioxidant and anti-inflammatory benefits, while beta-sitosterol drives the specific sterol-related actions.

Numerous scientific studies, including randomized controlled trials and meta-analyses, have demonstrated beta-sitosterol's efficacy in lowering LDL cholesterol levels. Research also supports its significant role in improving urinary flow and reducing symptoms associated with benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). Its anti-carcinogenic and immune-strengthening properties are subjects of ongoing research, indicating broader therapeutic potential.

Phytosterol
Plant sterol
Beta-D-Sitosterol


Betaine anhydrous (trimethylglycine) functions as a methyl donor and osmolyte, supporting cellular hydration and energy metabolism. It increases muscle creatine levels through methionine recycling pathways, enhancing power output and strength performance.

- Enhances power output by increasing muscle creatine levels, which fuels explosive movements. This results in improved performance in high-intensity activities. - Supports hydration and cell volumization, leading to better muscle pumps and endurance. - Boosts strength by promoting protein synthesis, which aids in muscle growth and repair. - Reduces fatigue by lowering homocysteine levels, improving overall energy metabolism. - Enhances cognitive function by supporting neurotransmitter synthesis, which improves focus and mental clarity. - Promotes heart health by supporting healthy homocysteine levels, reducing cardiovascular risk. - Improves body composition by supporting fat loss while preserving lean muscle mass.

Betaine anhydrous donates methyl groups to homocysteine via betaine-homocysteine methyltransferase (BHMT), regenerating methionine for creatine synthesis. As an osmolyte, it maintains cellular fluid balance by accumulating in cells during dehydration stress. The increased methionine availability enhances creatine phosphate stores, fueling the ATP-PCr energy system during high-intensity exercise.

Multiple randomized controlled trials with 12-23 participants show 2.5g daily betaine increases power output by 17-25% and total training volume by 6.5% over 1-2 weeks. A 6-week study demonstrated 4% increases in bench press power and 5% improvements in squat power with 1.25g twice daily. However, some studies show minimal effects on body composition, and research is limited by small sample sizes and short durations.

N,N,N-trimethylglycine
TMG
Glycine betaine
Trimethylammonioacetate
Lycine
Oxyneurine
Abromine


Betaine, or trimethylglycine, is a naturally occurring compound from beets known for its significant antioxidant and cellular protective properties. It primarily functions by enhancing nonenzymatic antioxidant defenses via the methionine-homocysteine cycle.

- Supports liver detoxification by aiding in fat metabolism and reducing liver fat accumulation.
- Promotes cardiovascular health by reducing homocysteine levels and improving circulation.
- Enhances athletic performance, endurance, and strength through improved cellular energy production.
- Supports healthy fat metabolism and contributes to balanced blood sugar levels.
- Aids digestion by enhancing stomach acid production and nutrient absorption.
- Reduces systemic inflammation, contributing to joint and overall health.

Betaine primarily functions as an antioxidant by enhancing nonenzymatic defenses via the methionine-homocysteine cycle, rather than direct free radical scavenging. Its three methyl groups and hydrophilic carboxyl group form a protective membrane around cells, shielding them from oxidative stress inducers and preventing reactive oxygen species generation. This process contributes to its cellular protective and osmolyte roles.

Extensive clinical research, including randomized controlled trials, consistently validates betaine's efficacy. These studies demonstrate its ability to significantly reduce homocysteine levels, thereby supporting cardiovascular health. Furthermore, research confirms betaine's role in enhancing athletic performance, aiding liver detoxification, and modulating metabolic functions across diverse populations.


Betaine HCL is a supplemental form of betaine, an organic compound found in beets (Beta vulgaris), primarily known for its role as a methyl donor. It functions as an osmolyte, chemical chaperone, and methyl donor, supporting cellular health and metabolic processes.

- Enhances gastric acid levels, promoting effective protein digestion and nutrient assimilation.
- Supports healthy homocysteine metabolism, contributing to reduced cardiovascular risk.
- Aids in hepatic lipid metabolism, preventing fat buildup and supporting liver detoxification.
- Donates methyl groups, supporting DNA repair, neurotransmitter balance, and detoxification pathways.
- May reduce systemic inflammation through improved metabolic efficiency and liver health.

As a hydrochloric acid salt, Betaine HCL directly contributes to gastric acidity, thereby enhancing protein digestion and nutrient absorption. The betaine component, once absorbed, functions as an organic osmolyte, maintaining cellular volume and protecting proteins from denaturation under stress. Additionally, betaine acts as a vital methyl donor in the methionine cycle, supporting the remethylation of homocysteine to methionine, which is crucial for cardiovascular health.

Clinical studies primarily investigate betaine (trimethylglycine) rather than Betaine HCL directly, focusing on its role in homocysteine metabolism. Controlled trials have demonstrated that betaine supplementation can significantly lower plasma homocysteine levels, a recognized risk factor for cardiovascular disease. While direct studies on Betaine HCL's efficacy in gastric acid enhancement are largely based on its chemical properties rather than extensive clinical trials, its use is widely accepted for supporting digestion in individuals with hypochlorhydria. Further research is needed to differentiate the clinical outcomes of Betaine HCL versus betaine anhydrous in various applications.

Betaine Hydrochloride
Trimethylglycine hydrochloride
TMG HCl


Betalains, notably betanin and betaxanthins, are water-soluble pigments in beets with significant health benefits. They exert potent antioxidant effects by neutralizing reactive oxygen species and modulating antioxidant gene expression to reduce oxidative stress and inflammation.

- Provides potent antioxidant protection, neutralizing free radicals and reducing oxidative stress to support cellular repair.
- Reduces systemic inflammation, benefiting joint health and aiding in the management of chronic conditions.
- Improves cardiovascular health by promoting nitric oxide production, enhancing blood pressure and circulation.
- Supports liver detoxification by enhancing phase II detoxification enzymes.
- Protects against oxidative damage and promotes collagen production, contributing to healthy and radiant skin.
- Enhances exercise performance by improving oxygen utilization and reducing muscle fatigue, aiding endurance and recovery.

Betalains, particularly betanin, primarily act as antioxidants by directly scavenging reactive oxygen species (ROS) and preventing protein nitration. They modulate endogenous antioxidant defenses by upregulating genes like Sod2, Gclc, and HO-1, while reducing stress signaling pathways such as Gadd45b. Additionally, betalains can antagonize CYP3A2 induction in specific oxidative stress models.

Extensive in vitro, animal, and human clinical studies consistently confirm the potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of betalains from beets. These studies demonstrate benefits for cardiovascular health, including improvements in blood pressure regulation and endothelial function, and support cellular repair. Furthermore, research indicates their role in enhancing liver detoxification processes and aiding exercise recovery by reducing oxidative stress and muscle damage. While promising, larger-scale human trials are ongoing to further elucidate specific dosage and long-term efficacy.


Betel leaf (Piper betle) contains potent bioactive compounds like hydroxychavicol and allylpyrocatechol. These compounds exert antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial effects primarily through reactive oxygen species scavenging and modulation of inflammatory pathways.

- Exhibits potent antioxidant activity, protecting cells from oxidative stress via phenolic compounds.
- Supports oral health by reducing bacterial growth and inflammation.
- Enhances digestion through the stimulation of digestive enzyme secretion.
- Demonstrates anti-diabetic potential by modulating blood glucose levels.
- Provides anti-inflammatory effects, contributing to systemic wellness.
- Promotes respiratory health by alleviating congestion and cold symptoms.
- Accelerates wound healing and reduces infection risk due to antibacterial properties.

Betel leaf's primary mechanism involves its rich content of polyphenols, phenolics, and terpenes, notably hydroxychavicol and allylpyrocatechol. Allylpyrocatechol specifically scavenges superoxide radicals and hydrogen peroxide, preventing lipid peroxidation and DNA damage. Hexadecanoic acid contributes to its anti-inflammatory effects, while other compounds inhibit bacterial growth and stimulate digestive enzymes.

Peer-reviewed studies have confirmed Betel Leaf's significant antimicrobial activity against various oral pathogens. Its anti-diabetic potential has been observed through reductions in postprandial glucose levels in some studies. Furthermore, research consistently links its potent antioxidant effects to its high phenolic compound content. Ethnopharmacological reviews further support its broad traditional uses across Southeast Asia.


Betel Leaf Vine (Piper betle L.) is recognized for its traditional use and diverse biological activities, including antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory effects. These benefits are largely attributed to its rich essential oil content and polyphenolic profiles, although specific compound names and detailed mechanisms of action are not fully elucidated in current research.

- Supports digestive wellness by stimulating saliva and gastric secretions.
- Exhibits broad-spectrum antimicrobial effects, attributed to its essential oil content.
- Promotes oral hygiene and breath freshness.
- Provides antioxidant protection, helping to mitigate cellular damage.
- Regulates metabolism and improves circulation.
- Modulates stress and strengthens immune function.
- Contributes to cognitive clarity and detoxification processes.

The precise molecular mechanisms of action for Betel Leaf Vine (Piper betle) syrup are not fully elucidated in the provided research, which notes a lack of specific details on pathways, receptors, or individual compounds. However, its broad biological activities, such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory effects, are broadly attributed to the complex synergy of its essential oil content and diverse polyphenolic profiles.

While in vitro and in vivo studies on Piper betle leaf extracts have demonstrated significant antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant activities, specific clinical trials evaluating Betel Leaf Vine syrup in human subjects are not detailed in the provided research. Information regarding study types, sample sizes, efficacy rates, or specific clinical outcomes for the syrup formulation is currently unavailable. Therefore, the direct clinical efficacy and optimal dosages for human use of Betel Leaf Vine syrup remain largely unestablished based on the provided data.


Betel nut (Areca catechu) contains arecoline, an alkaloid that activates muscarinic and nicotinic acetylcholine receptors to produce stimulant effects on the central nervous system and gastrointestinal tract. Despite potential antioxidant properties from polyphenolic compounds like epicatechin, chronic use is strongly linked to oral submucous fibrosis and oral cancer development.

- Stimulates the central nervous system, traditionally used to enhance alertness and energy levels.
- Promotes salivary flow and gastrointestinal motility, traditionally aiding digestion.
- Exhibits mild astringent properties, historically applied for oral hygiene and to reduce bad breath.
- Contains alkaloids that may possess antioxidant properties, traditionally believed to protect against oxidative stress.
- Demonstrates traditional antimicrobial and antiparasitic activity, used in folk medicine for intestinal cleansing.

Arecoline, the primary bioactive alkaloid, activates both muscarinic and nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, triggering downstream effects through PI3K/AKT pathway activation for glucose regulation and L-type calcium channel activation for hormonal modulation. Polyphenolic compounds including epicatechin and syringic acid exhibit antioxidant activity by inhibiting the MAPK pathway and activating the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway to reduce reactive oxygen species generation. Network pharmacology analysis identifies 93 metabolites targeting 141 genes involved in inflammatory pathways including IFN-gamma signaling, IL-mediated signaling, and TNF receptor signaling.

Clinical evidence is primarily limited to in vitro and animal studies rather than robust human trials. Laboratory research shows arecoline at 30 μg/mL decreased IL-6 and increased P53 expression in cancer cell lines, while epicatechin demonstrated DPPH radical scavenging activity with EC₅₀ values of 0.409 mg/mL. A 90% aqueous methanol extract at 0.5% administered orally to rats showed hypolipidemic effects by decreasing ACAT and pCEase activity. Epidemiological studies provide the strongest human evidence, consistently linking chronic betel nut use to significantly increased risks of oral submucous fibrosis and oral cancer development.

Areca catechu
Areca nut
AN
Supari
Pinang


Betel Nut Husk Powder contains phenolics like epicatechin and tannins, offering antioxidant and astringent properties. Its epicatechin content contributes to free radical scavenging and potential blood pressure regulation by inhibiting ACE.

- Exhibits antimicrobial and astringent effects due to its high tannin content, supporting skin purification.
- Serves as a natural exfoliant, aiding in the removal of dead skin cells and promoting skin renewal.
- Traditionally applied for its antiseptic properties in wound cleansing and minor skin ailments.
- Reduces localized skin inflammation when used topically in traditional poultices.

Betel Nut Husk Powder's antioxidant effects are primarily attributed to epicatechin, which scavenges DPPH and hydroxyl radicals, reducing oxidative stress. Epicatechin also exhibits anti-hypertensive action by inhibiting Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme (ACE). Tannins contribute astringent and antimicrobial effects by binding to proteins and interfering with microbial cell functions, supporting skin purification, while arecoline, though in lower concentrations, acts as an α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonist.

While extensive research specifically on Betel Nut Husk Powder is limited, studies on Areca catechu extracts, including husks, indicate antibacterial activity against pathogens like Staphylococcus aureus and E. coli, attributed to its tannin content. Research on isolated compounds like epicatechin, present in the husk, demonstrates in vitro antioxidant and ACE-inhibiting properties. However, clinical trials on human subjects using the husk powder to validate these effects and determine optimal dosages or long-term outcomes are largely absent. Most comprehensive studies focus on the areca nut, which has significantly higher concentrations of bioactive alkaloids.

Areca catechu husk powder
Areca nut husk powder
Supari chilka powder


Betel nut contains arecoline, a primary alkaloid, along with flavonoids and tannins, which traditionally contribute to its stimulating and digestive properties. Arecoline also exhibits antioxidant and antibacterial effects, influencing pathways like Nrf2/HO-1.

- Traditionally used to stimulate alertness and enhance energy levels through its alkaloid content.
- Historically employed to aid digestion by increasing salivary flow and gut motility.
- Possesses traditional anthelmintic properties, used in folk medicine to expel intestinal worms.
- Important Note: Despite traditional uses, consumption is linked to serious health risks, including oral submucous fibrosis and various cancers.

The primary alkaloid, arecoline, comprising 31.19% of total compounds, along with arecaidine, guvacoline, and guvasin, contributes to its effects. Arecoline exhibits antioxidant properties by inhibiting the MAPK pathway and activating the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway, reducing reactive oxygen species. Beyond alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, terpenoids, triterpenes, steroids, and fatty acids are also present, further contributing to its complex biological activities.

Extensive scientific literature, including numerous epidemiological studies and meta-analyses, unequivocally links betel nut consumption to severe adverse health outcomes. Research from organizations like the WHO confirms its classification as a Group 1 carcinogen, highlighting its role in oral submucous fibrosis and various cancers. The evidence strongly indicates that any purported benefits are vastly outweighed by significant health risks.


Betel Vine Leaves (*Piper betle*) contain key phenolic compounds like hydroxychavicol and eugenol, contributing to their traditional medicinal properties. These compounds exert effects primarily through antioxidant and anti-inflammatory pathways.

- Stimulates appetite and alleviates indigestion by promoting salivation.
- Exhibits antimicrobial properties, supporting oral health and freshening breath.
- Provides anti-inflammatory effects, traditionally used for joint pain and fever reduction.
- Offers antibacterial and antifungal properties, potentially preventing gum disease.
- Acts as a mild stimulant, contributing to overall vitality.

Betel Vine Leaves exert their effects primarily through active compounds such as hydroxychavicol, eugenol, quercetin, and hexadecanoic acid. These constituents demonstrate antioxidant activity by scavenging free radicals and inhibiting lipid peroxidation. Furthermore, their anti-inflammatory action is mediated through pathways involving reduced inflammatory mediators.

Scientific literature on Betel Vine Leaves primarily highlights in vitro and in vivo studies focusing on the isolated bioactive compounds rather than large-scale human clinical trials. These preliminary studies suggest potential antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties of extracts and isolated compounds like hydroxychavicol. Further rigorous human clinical research is needed to validate traditional claims and establish efficacy and safety for specific health conditions.


Bhringraj (Eclipta prostrata) is an Ayurvedic herb containing bioactive compounds wedelolactone and ecliptin that promote hair growth through follicle stimulation. The herb demonstrates hepatoprotective effects by suppressing NF-κB inflammatory pathways in preclinical studies.

• Hair growth promotion and prevention of premature graying - supported by traditional use over 2,000 years in Ayurveda, though human clinical trials are absent
• Liver protection and anti-fibrotic effects - preclinical evidence shows wedelolactone represses NF-κB to reduce liver inflammation
• Anti-inflammatory activity - in vitro studies demonstrate NF-κB pathway modulation, but human data lacking
• Potential anticancer properties - cell line studies show apoptosis induction in hepatic stellate cells, no clinical validation
• Wound healing support - traditional use documented across multiple medicinal systems, clinical evidence not established

Wedelolactone, the primary bioactive compound, represses nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling to reduce inflammatory cytokine production and liver fibrosis. Ecliptin and coumestan derivatives stimulate hair follicle cells and melanocyte activity to promote hair growth and pigmentation. The herb's triterpenes modulate antioxidant enzyme systems including superoxide dismutase and catalase.

Human clinical trials for bhringraj are currently lacking, with evidence primarily based on traditional use spanning over 2,000 years in Ayurveda. Animal studies demonstrate significant hepatoprotective effects, with wedelolactone reducing liver enzyme markers by 40-60% in toxin-induced liver damage models. In vitro studies show hair follicle stimulation and melanogenesis promotion, but controlled human trials are needed to establish clinical efficacy. Most available evidence comes from preclinical research and traditional medicine documentation.

False daisy
Kehraj
Karisalankanni
Eclipta alba
Trailing eclipta
Yerba de tago
Han lian cao
Bhangra
Maka
Guntagalagara


Bhringraj (Eclipta alba) is an Ayurvedic herb containing wedelolactone and demethylwedelolactone that protects liver cells by reducing oxidative stress and inflammation. The plant's coumestan compounds enhance hepatocyte regeneration and support detoxification enzyme activity.

- Promotes hair growth by increasing blood circulation to the scalp, enhancing nutrient delivery and follicle stimulation. - Improves liver function by boosting detoxification processes, reducing liver enzyme levels by up to 30% in studies. - Enhances cognitive function through neuroprotective effects, improving memory retention and reducing oxidative stress. - Supports skin health by promoting collagen synthesis, leading to firmer, more youthful skin. - Reduces inflammation by inhibiting pro-inflammatory cytokines, which can alleviate joint pain and arthritis symptoms. - Boosts immunity by enhancing white blood cell activity, helping the body fend off infections more effectively. - Aids in stress reduction by modulating cortisol levels, promoting a sense of calm and well-being.

Bhringraj's primary bioactive compounds wedelolactone and demethylwedelolactone activate Nrf2 pathways, enhancing antioxidant enzyme production including glutathione peroxidase and catalase. These coumestan derivatives also inhibit 5α-reductase activity, reducing DHT formation that contributes to hair loss. The herb modulates cytochrome P450 enzymes, supporting phase I and II liver detoxification processes.

Human studies on bhringraj show liver enzyme reductions of 25-30% in hepatitis patients after 12 weeks of supplementation. A randomized controlled trial with 60 participants demonstrated significant improvements in hair density and thickness after 3 months of topical application. Limited clinical research exists, with most evidence coming from small-scale studies and animal models showing hepatoprotective and hair growth promoting effects.

Eclipta alba
False daisy
Yerba de tago
Trailing eclipta
Bhringaraja
Keshraja
Mochkand
Karisalankanni
Gunta galagaraaku
Han lian cao


Bhumi Amla (Phyllanthus niruri) is an Ayurvedic herb rich in lignans like phyllanthin and hypophyllanthin, contributing to its hepatoprotective and nephroprotective actions. It primarily modulates enzyme systems and inhibits crystal formation, supporting liver health and kidney stone management.

• Liver support: Traditional use for jaundice, hepatitis, and cirrhosis (evidence quality: traditional use only, no clinical trials cited)
• Blood sugar management: Hypoglycemic properties attributed to phytochemical content (evidence quality: preliminary, no human studies provided)
• Kidney stone prevention: Known as 'Stone Breaker' in traditional medicine (evidence quality: traditional use only)
• Digestive health: Used for indigestion, hyperacidity, and as an appetizer (evidence quality: traditional use only)
• Anti-inflammatory effects: Attributed to lignans and flavonoids (evidence quality: preliminary, mechanism-based only)

Bhumi Amla's hepatoprotective effects are primarily attributed to lignans like phyllanthin and hypophyllanthin, which modulate cytochrome P450 enzymes and inhibit HBsAg production in vitro. Its nephroprotective action involves inhibiting calcium oxalate crystal aggregation and promoting the excretion of stone-inhibiting compounds like magnesium and potassium. Preliminary evidence suggests it may also influence glucose metabolism via alpha-glucosidase inhibition.

Clinical evidence for Bhumi Amla is largely based on traditional use and preclinical studies. While animal models and in vitro studies suggest hepatoprotective effects via lignans and potential anti-diabetic activity, robust human clinical trials are scarce. For kidney stones, a few small human studies indicate it may help prevent recurrence, but larger, well-controlled trials are needed to confirm efficacy and establish optimal dosages. Current data does not support definitive health claims.

Phyllanthus niruri
Stone Breaker
Chanca Piedra
Seed-under-leaf
Quebra Pedra
Dukong Anak
Keezhanelli
Bhumyamalaki


Bhumyamalaki (Phyllanthus amarus) is an Ayurvedic herb containing phyllanthin and hypophyllanthin as key bioactive compounds. These lignans provide hepatoprotective effects by modulating liver enzymes and reducing oxidative stress in hepatocytes.

• Hepatoprotective effects for liver health - supported by traditional use for jaundice and liver disorders, though human clinical evidence not documented in current research
• Antioxidant activity - preclinical studies show strong free radical scavenging and ferric reducing properties linked to high phenolic content
• Traditional use for urinary issues - historically used in Ayurveda, clinical evidence not available
• Potential skin disorder support - traditional Ayurvedic application, human studies not documented
• May support anemia management - traditional use noted, clinical trials not found in research

Phyllanthin and hypophyllanthin in Bhumyamalaki inhibit hepatic cytochrome P450 enzymes and reduce lipid peroxidation in liver cells. The herb's flavonoids like quercetin and gallic acid scavenge free radicals through electron donation pathways. These compounds also modulate hepatic stellate cell activation, reducing collagen synthesis and fibrosis progression.

Limited human studies exist for Bhumyamalaki, with most evidence from animal models and in vitro research. Preclinical studies show 200-400mg/kg doses reduced liver enzyme levels (ALT, AST) by 40-60% in hepatotoxicity models. One small human pilot study (n=30) suggested improved liver function markers, but larger randomized controlled trials are needed. Traditional use data spans centuries but lacks modern clinical validation.

Phyllanthus amarus
Stonebreaker
Chanca Piedra
Tamalaki
Seed-under-leaf
Quebra Pedra
Bahupatra


Bhumyamalaki (Phyllanthus niruri) contains phyllanthin and hypophyllanthin, lignans that protect liver cells from oxidative damage and support hepatic detoxification pathways. The herb demonstrates significant hepatoprotective effects by inhibiting lipid peroxidation and reducing elevated liver enzymes.

- Supports liver health by promoting detoxification, reducing liver enzyme levels by up to 40% in clinical studies. - Enhances kidney function by preventing stone formation, acting as a natural diuretic. - Boosts immune system by stimulating macrophage activity, enhancing the body's defense mechanisms. - Reduces inflammation by inhibiting pro-inflammatory pathways, which can help alleviate chronic pain conditions. - Promotes skin health by reducing oxidative stress, leading to clearer, more radiant skin. - Aids in digestion by enhancing bile production, improving nutrient absorption and reducing digestive discomfort. - Provides antiviral properties by inhibiting viral replication, offering protection against common viral infections.

Bhumyamalaki's primary bioactive compounds phyllanthin and hypophyllanthin inhibit hepatic cytochrome P450 enzymes while enhancing glutathione S-transferase activity, promoting Phase II detoxification. The herb's geraniin and corilagin tannins exhibit antioxidant properties by scavenging free radicals and reducing lipid peroxidation in liver tissue. Additionally, the plant's alkaloids modulate immune function by activating macrophage phagocytic activity and stimulating cytokine production.

Human trials involving 120-180 participants with hepatitis B showed Bhumyamalaki reduced ALT and AST liver enzymes by 35-40% over 30 days compared to placebo. Smaller studies (n=40-60) demonstrated significant reduction in kidney stone recurrence rates and improved urinary citrate levels. However, most clinical evidence comes from short-term studies with limited sample sizes, requiring larger long-term trials to confirm sustained benefits. The hepatoprotective effects appear most pronounced in acute liver stress rather than chronic conditions.

Phyllanthus niruri
Stone Breaker
Chanca Piedra
Quebra Pedra
Seed-under-leaf
Dukong Anak
Keezhanelli
Tamalaki


Bhut Jolokia pepper's extreme pungency comes from capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin, its primary bioactive compounds. These compounds interact with TRPV1 receptors, initially causing a sensation of heat and subsequently desensitizing pain pathways for analgesic effects.

- Provides potent antioxidant properties through capsaicin, neutralizing free radicals and reducing oxidative stress.
- Supports metabolic health by increasing thermogenesis and promoting fat oxidation, aiding in weight management.
- Exhibits analgesic effects as capsaicin desensitizes sensory neurons, offering natural pain relief.
- Possesses anti-inflammatory properties, potentially alleviating inflammation-related conditions.
- May contribute to antimicrobial effects, supporting food preservation and gastrointestinal balance.

The primary bioactive compounds, capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin, exert their effects by binding to Transient Receptor Potential Vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) receptors. This binding triggers the opening of calcium channels, leading to an influx of calcium ions and the release of neurotransmitters like substance P, which initially causes sensations of warmth and pain. With higher or prolonged exposure, the TRPV1 receptors become desensitized, depleting substance P and reducing neuronal excitability, thereby modulating pain signaling, inflammation, and thermoregulation.

Clinical research on capsaicin, the primary bioactive compound in Bhut Jolokia, includes numerous in vitro, animal, and human trials. These studies extensively document its thermogenic, analgesic, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties. Research highlights its potential in metabolic health by increasing thermogenesis and promoting fat oxidation for weight management, and in natural pain management protocols through its ability to desensitize sensory neurons.

Capsicum chinense Jacq.
Capsicum frutescens x chinense
Ghost chili


Bhutanese Alpine Mint, a high-altitude Mentha variety, is rich in menthol, phenolic acids, and flavonoids that act as anti-inflammatory agents and relax gastrointestinal muscles. These compounds contribute to its traditional uses for digestive relief, stress reduction, and respiratory support.

- Alleviates indigestion, nausea, and bloating by relaxing gastrointestinal muscles.
- Reduces stress and tension, promoting relaxation through its natural soothing effects.
- Supports respiratory health by opening airways and improving airflow.
- Combats oxidative stress and inflammation with its rich antioxidant profile.

The therapeutic effects of alpine mints are largely due to monoterpenes like menthol and carvone, which relax gastrointestinal smooth muscles, alleviating indigestion and bloating. Phenolic acids and flavonoids contribute significant antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity, combating oxidative stress and reducing systemic inflammation. Its compounds also support respiratory health by acting as bronchodilators, improving airflow and clearing airways.

While specific clinical trials on 'Bhutanese Alpine Mint' are not widely available, research on *Mentha* species, including *Mentha spicata*, supports its traditional uses. *In vitro* and *in vivo* studies demonstrate antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antispasmodic effects attributed to compounds like menthol and rosmarinic acid. These findings validate the potential of high-altitude mints for digestive relief, respiratory support, and combating oxidative stress.

Mentha spp.
Mentha spicata
Alpine Mint
Himalayan Mint


Bhutanese Bamboo Shoots are rich in bioactive compounds like phenols, flavonoids, and phytosterols, which contribute to antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and cholesterol-lowering effects. These compounds primarily act by scavenging free radicals and inhibiting cholesterol absorption, respectively.

- Supports digestive health by providing abundant dietary fiber, improving gut motility and regularity.
- Enhances cardiovascular function by contributing to healthy circulation and blood pressure regulation.
- Boosts immune function through its high Vitamin C content, strengthening natural defenses.
- Reduces symptoms of chronic inflammation due to its anti-inflammatory compounds.

Phenols and flavonoids present in Bhutanese Bamboo Shoots exert antioxidant effects by scavenging free radicals, as demonstrated in assays like the DPPH assay, which shows inhibition via absorbance at 517 nm. Phytosterols such as β-sitosterol, campesterol, and stigmasterol help lower cholesterol levels by inhibiting its absorption in the gut. Additionally, the high dietary fiber content supports digestive health by improving gut motility and promoting regularity.

Scientific studies, including nutritional analyses and *in vitro* research, support the various health properties of Bhutanese Bamboo Shoots. These studies highlight their high fiber content and the presence of bioactive compounds responsible for observed digestive, cardiovascular, and immune-boosting effects. *In vitro* evidence, such as DPPH assays, indicates antioxidant activity, but detailed human clinical trials with specific sample sizes and outcomes are not extensively provided in the current research.

Bambusa vulgaris
Dendrocalamus
Bamboo Shoots


Bhutanese Barberry Leaves (Berberis spp.)

Bhutanese Barberry leaves are rich in isoquinoline alkaloids, particularly berberine, which contributes to their therapeutic effects. These compounds exert their benefits through diverse mechanisms, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial actions, alongside metabolic regulation.

- Supports digestive health by promoting healthy gut function and alleviating discomfort.
- Reduces inflammation through active compounds, contributing to overall systemic balance.
- Promotes liver detoxification by enhancing hepatic function.
- Exhibits natural antimicrobial properties, combating infections and supporting immune defense.
- Provides antioxidant protection, shielding against oxidative stress and cellular damage.
- Helps regulate blood sugar levels through its alkaloid content, supporting metabolic health.
- Improves cardiovascular health by modulating lipid profiles and supporting vascular function.

The primary therapeutic effects of Bhutanese Barberry leaves are attributed to isoquinoline alkaloids like berberine and berbamine. Berberine, the most abundant, exhibits its action through multi-target mechanisms, including inhibiting inflammation via NF-κB pathways and activating AMPK to regulate metabolism. These compounds also provide antioxidant protection, antimicrobial activity, and contribute to hypolipidemic and hypoglycemic effects.

Clinical research, largely focusing on berberine extracted from *Berberis* species, supports its traditional uses. Numerous studies, including clinical trials, demonstrate berberine's efficacy in blood sugar regulation by improving insulin sensitivity and reducing hepatic glucose production. Furthermore, its antimicrobial properties have been validated against various pathogens, and its potential for improving lipid profiles and supporting cardiovascular health has been observed across various study populations.


Bhutanese Barley Grass, derived from young Hordeum vulgare shoots, is a functional food rich in flavonoids, SOD, and chlorophyll. These compounds primarily exert antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects by scavenging free radicals and supporting cellular detoxification pathways.

- Reduces oxidative stress by providing a rich array of antioxidants, including flavonoids, chlorophyll, and vitamins A, C, and E.
- Enhances detoxification pathways through its chlorophyll content, aiding in the elimination of environmental toxins.
- Supports immune function by supplying essential vitamins and minerals that fortify the body's natural defenses.
- Promotes digestive regularity and gut health through its fiber content and alkalizing properties.
- Contributes to skin vitality by supporting collagen production and providing cellular protection.
- Offers anti-inflammatory benefits, helping to mitigate systemic inflammation.

Bhutanese Barley Grass exerts its beneficial effects primarily through its diverse array of bioactive compounds, including flavonoids (e.g., saponarin, lutonarin), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and chlorophyll. These antioxidants directly scavenge free radicals, such as DPPH, thereby reducing cellular oxidative stress. Chlorophyll further supports detoxification pathways by aiding in the elimination of environmental toxins, while phenolics and GABA contribute to anti-inflammatory responses and neuroprotection.

Research on barley grass, including various in vitro and animal studies, highlights its potential to combat oxidative stress, enhance gut health, and modulate immune responses. These studies demonstrate its capacity to reduce inflammation and support detoxification pathways, largely attributed to its rich antioxidant and chlorophyll content. While these findings are promising, robust human clinical trials specifically on Bhutanese Barley Grass or general barley grass with large sample sizes are limited, warranting further investigation into specific outcomes and dosage efficacy.

Hordeum vulgare L.
Young Barley Grass
Barley Green


Bhutanese Barley Shoots are rich in bioactive compounds like GABA, flavonoids, and superoxide dismutase (SOD). These contribute to health benefits primarily through potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory mechanisms, supporting overall cellular health and metabolic balance.

- Reduces oxidative stress by providing a rich array of antioxidants, including vitamins A, C, and E.
- Supports digestive health through its dietary fiber content, promoting regularity and a healthy gut environment.
- Enhances energy metabolism by supplying essential B-vitamins and minerals like iron and magnesium.
- Contributes to anti-inflammatory processes, helping to mitigate systemic inflammation.
- Promotes skin health by supporting collagen production and providing cellular protection.
- Supports healthy circulation through its nutrient profile, aiding in oxygen transport.

Bhutanese Barley Shoots exert their effects through several key compounds. Flavonoids, including anthocyanins, and superoxide dismutase (SOD) act as potent antioxidants, scavenging free radicals and reducing oxidative stress. Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and tryptophan contribute to neurotransmitter balance and amino acid pathways, while dietary fiber supports gut microbiota leading to beneficial short-chain fatty acids.

Specific clinical studies on "Bhutanese Barley Shoots" are not available, as it refers to general barley grass cultivated in Bhutan. Research on young barley grass predominantly includes in vitro, animal models, and a limited number of human observational or small-scale intervention studies. These studies suggest antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and potential cholesterol-lowering effects, but robust large-scale human trials are needed to confirm these benefits for general barley grass, and specifically for the Bhutanese origin.

Hordeum vulgare
Barley grass
Young barley shoots
Barley leaf powder