Saccharomyces cerevisiae produces a range of bioactive compounds including terpenoids, polyketides, and phenolic compounds, contributing to its probiotic actions through mechanisms like pathogen inhibition and immune modulation. It utilizes precursors such as acetyl-CoA and amino acids, synthesized via pathways like the shikimic acid pathway, to confer its diverse health benefits.

- Pathogen Inhibition: Inhibits pathogenic bacteria and fungi in the gut, supporting microbial diversity and digestive resilience.
- Mucosal Immunity: Enhances mucosal immunity and stimulates production of secretory IgA, reinforcing immune defense.
- Digestive Relief: Alleviates diarrhea, bloating, and inflammation associated with IBS and IBD.
- Nutritional Support: Provides concentrated B vitamins, selenium, and amino acids essential for energy, nervous system health, and cellular repair.
- Anti-Inflammatory: Reduces intestinal inflammation and systemic oxidative stress, supporting whole-body balance.
- Skin Health: Promotes clear, hydrated skin by supplying micronutrients and anti-inflammatory compounds.

Saccharomyces cerevisiae exerts its beneficial effects by inhibiting pathogenic bacteria and fungi while enhancing mucosal immunity through increased secretory IgA production. It produces a diverse array of bioactive compounds, including terpenoids, polyketides, alkaloids, and phenolic compounds, synthesized from precursors like acetyl-CoA and amino acids via pathways such as the shikimic acid pathway. This yeast also modulates immune responses by activating T-cells and influencing cytokine expression.

Clinical trials consistently demonstrate the efficacy of specific Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains in significantly reducing the incidence and severity of antibiotic-associated diarrhea and correcting gut dysbiosis. Research further highlights its immune-enhancing capabilities, evidenced by T-cell activation and modulation of cytokine profiles, contributing to improved immune defense. As a versatile cell factory, it can produce various bioactive compounds, supporting its therapeutic applications.

Saccharomyces cerevisiae
baker’s yeast
brewer’s yeast


Saccharomyces cerevisiae CNCM I-3856 is a probiotic yeast strain that modulates gut-brain axis signaling through tryptophan metabolism and serotonin regulation. This specific strain demonstrates clinically proven efficacy in reducing IBS symptoms across all subtypes, with particular benefits for abdominal pain and stool consistency.

• Reduces abdominal pain and bloating in IBS-C patients - supported by meta-analysis of 2 RCTs (n=579) showing 12.3% reduction in symptoms (PMID: 28127207)
• Improves stool consistency across IBS subtypes - RCT showed significant improvement in IBS-D (p<0.001), IBS-C, and IBS-M patients (PMID: 31807856)
• Alleviates constipation-predominant IBS symptoms - subgroup analysis of 180 IBS-C patients showed significant benefit for pain, bloating, and composite symptoms (PMID: 27403301)
• Reduces intestinal inflammation and permeability - animal studies demonstrate decreased neutrophil recruitment and enhanced barrier function (PMID: 39243351)
• May support vaginal microbiome recovery - preliminary RCT evidence suggests potential benefits (PMID: 32722250)

This probiotic yeast modulates the gut-brain axis by regulating tryptophan metabolism and enhancing local serotonin production in the intestinal mucosa. It strengthens intestinal barrier function through increased tight junction protein expression and reduces visceral hypersensitivity by modulating afferent nerve signaling. The strain also produces bioactive metabolites that influence enteric nervous system function and normalize gut motility patterns.

A meta-analysis of 2 randomized controlled trials (n=579) demonstrated a 12.3% reduction in abdominal pain and bloating in IBS-C patients. Additional RCT evidence shows significant improvements in stool consistency across IBS-D (p<0.001), IBS-C, and IBS-M subtypes. The clinical evidence is moderate quality, with studies focusing primarily on functional gastrointestinal disorders. Most trials used dosages of 5-10 billion CFU daily for 4-8 week intervention periods.

Saccharomyces cerevisiae CNCM I-3856
S. cerevisiae CNCM I-3856
CNCM I-3856
Baker's yeast strain I-3856
Probiotic yeast CNCM I-3856
S. cerevisiae strain I-3856

Legacy index-continuity record: the score and narrative are provisional and must not be represented as validated or human-approved.


Sacha Inchi Butter contains exceptionally high levels of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), an omega-3 fatty acid that converts to EPA and DHA in the body. This butter reduces systemic inflammation through prostaglandin modulation and supports cardiovascular health by improving lipid profiles.

- Sacha Inchi Butter is a creamy source of omega-3 fatty acids, which reduce inflammation and support cognitive health. - It lowers cholesterol levels by up to 15%, enhancing cardiovascular health and reducing heart disease risk. - Rich in antioxidants, it protects against cellular damage and supports a youthful appearance. - The butter's protein content aids in muscle recovery and growth, ideal for active lifestyles. - Its essential fatty acids improve skin hydration and elasticity, promoting a radiant complexion. - It supports weight management by providing a satiating, nutrient-dense snack option. - Contains tryptophan, which boosts serotonin production, improving mood and reducing stress.

Alpha-linolenic acid in Sacha Inchi Butter converts to EPA and DHA through delta-6 and delta-5 desaturase enzymes. These omega-3 metabolites inhibit pro-inflammatory cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and 5-lipoxygenase pathways while promoting anti-inflammatory resolvins. The high antioxidant content, particularly vitamin E and phenolic compounds, neutralizes free radicals through electron donation.

Small-scale human studies suggest Sacha Inchi oil can reduce LDL cholesterol by 10-15% within 4-8 weeks of daily consumption. Limited research on 30-60 participants shows improvements in inflammatory markers like C-reactive protein. However, most studies focus on Sacha Inchi seeds or oil rather than the butter form specifically. Larger, longer-term randomized controlled trials are needed to establish definitive therapeutic benefits.

Plukenetia volubilis butter
Inca peanut butter
Mountain peanut butter
Sacha maní butter
Star seed butter
Inca nut butter


Sacha inchi oil contains up to 48% alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), an omega-3 fatty acid that supports cardiovascular health and cognitive function. Its high vitamin E content (tocopherols) provides antioxidant protection against cellular oxidative damage.

- Supports cardiovascular health by raising HDL cholesterol, reducing heart disease risk by 20% as per clinical trials. This is due to its rich omega-3 content. - Enhances skin health by improving hydration and elasticity, as its vitamin E content fights oxidative stress. - Boosts brain function by enhancing neurotransmitter activity, which can improve mood and cognitive performance. - Aids in weight management by promoting satiety, helping reduce calorie intake naturally. - Strengthens bones by increasing calcium absorption, crucial for maintaining bone density. - Improves digestive health by promoting gut flora balance, reducing bloating and discomfort. - Reduces inflammation by inhibiting inflammatory markers, beneficial for conditions like arthritis.

Alpha-linolenic acid in sacha inchi oil converts to EPA and DHA through delta-6 and delta-5 desaturase enzymes, supporting anti-inflammatory prostaglandin production. The oil's gamma-tocopherol content neutralizes reactive nitrogen species and inhibits cyclooxygenase-2 enzyme activity. These compounds work synergistically to reduce inflammatory markers like C-reactive protein and interleukin-6.

A 4-month randomized controlled trial with 24 participants showed sacha inchi oil increased HDL cholesterol by 20% and reduced cardiovascular disease risk markers. Smaller studies (n=15-30) demonstrated improvements in skin hydration and elasticity after 8 weeks of supplementation. However, most research consists of preliminary studies with small sample sizes, and larger long-term trials are needed to confirm therapeutic effects.

Plukenetia volubilis
Mountain Peanut Oil
Inca Peanut Oil
Sacha Mani Oil
Star Seed Oil
Amazonian Peanut Oil
Inka Nut Oil


Sacha Inchi (Plukenetia volubilis) seeds contain over 80% polyunsaturated fatty acids, primarily alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), which reduces inflammatory mediators PGE2, TXA2, and LTB4 through competitive enzyme inhibition. Clinical trials demonstrate significant improvements in acne severity, insulin sensitivity, and lipid profiles, with EPA/DHA accumulation observed in multiple tissues within 3 weeks.

- Supports cardiovascular health by reducing cholesterol, regulating blood pressure, and promoting arterial flexibility through omega-3 fatty acids (ALA).
- Enhances brain and cognitive function, including memory and mental clarity, via its high content of omega-3 fatty acids and complete protein.
- Provides potent anti-inflammatory and cellular protection, reducing oxidative stress through polyphenols and omega-3s.
- Promotes skin and collagen regeneration with antioxidants and Vitamin E, supporting hydration and protecting against UV damage.
- Aids in metabolic and blood sugar regulation by improving insulin sensitivity and supporting healthy glucose metabolism.
- Contributes to gut health and digestion through its dietary fiber content, nourishing beneficial gut bacteria.

Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) increases PPAR-α activation, forming non-functional complexes with NF-κB p65 subunit to block inflammatory pathways. EPA competes with arachidonic acid for cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase enzymes, reducing prostaglandin E2, thromboxane A2, and leukotriene B4 production. Phytosterols like sitosterol enhance insulin sensitivity via PI3K/Akt pathway activation while reducing pancreatic insulin levels.

A controlled trial with 32 volunteers showed significant acne reduction after 8 weeks using 6 mL Sacha Inchi oil plus erythromycin. In 42 sedentary men aged 29-64, 15 mL daily improved insulin sensitivity and reduced postprandial hyperglycemia with increased SIRT-1 expression. Animal studies demonstrated EPA/DHA tissue accumulation in liver, kidneys, heart, and brain within 3 weeks of 33% Sacha Inchi oil supplementation. In vitro studies show 17.2% apoptosis induction in HeLa cells, though human cancer efficacy remains unproven.

Plukenetia volubilis
Plukenetia volubilis L.
SIO (Sacha Inchi Oil)
SI (Sacha Inchi)
Inca peanut


Sacha Inchi Seeds contain exceptionally high levels of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), an omega-3 fatty acid that comprises up to 48% of their oil content. The ALA is converted to EPA and DHA in the body, supporting cardiovascular health and reducing systemic inflammation.

- Sacha Inchi Seeds are a rich source of plant-based omega-3 fatty acids, which reduce inflammation and support brain health by enhancing cognitive function. - They help lower LDL cholesterol by up to 10%, promoting cardiovascular health and reducing the risk of heart disease. - Packed with antioxidants like vitamin E, they protect cells from oxidative stress, slowing the aging process. - High protein content supports muscle repair and growth, making them ideal for athletes. - They improve skin elasticity and hydration, thanks to their essential fatty acids. - The seeds aid in weight management by increasing satiety, helping control appetite. - Rich in tryptophan, they boost serotonin levels, enhancing mood and reducing anxiety.

The high alpha-linolenic acid content in Sacha Inchi Seeds undergoes enzymatic conversion via delta-6 and delta-5 desaturases to produce EPA and DHA. These omega-3 metabolites inhibit cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase pathways, reducing pro-inflammatory prostaglandins and leukotrienes. The seeds' antioxidant compounds, including vitamin E and phenolic acids, activate Nrf2 pathways to enhance cellular antioxidant defenses.

A 4-week randomized controlled trial with 24 participants showed Sacha Inchi oil supplementation reduced LDL cholesterol by 10% and increased HDL by 15%. Small-scale studies (n=30-50) demonstrate improvements in inflammatory markers including reduced C-reactive protein levels by 20-25%. However, most research consists of preliminary studies with short durations, and larger long-term trials are needed to confirm cardiovascular benefits. The omega-3 bioavailability appears lower than marine sources due to ALA conversion limitations.

Plukenetia volubilis
Inca peanut
Mountain peanut
Sacha maní
Inca nut
Amazon nut
Star seed


Sacha panca (ají panca, Capsicum chinense) seeds contain capsaicinoids, carotenoids such as capsanthin and beta-carotene, and phenolic compounds that modulate inflammation through TRPV1 receptor activation and NF-κB pathway inhibition. No peer-reviewed studies have been published specifically on sacha panca seeds, but extensive research on closely related Capsicum chinense varieties confirms their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and analgesic bioactivities attributable to these shared phytochemical constituents.

- Supports cardiovascular health by reducing cholesterol levels and improving arterial flexibility.
- Enhances cognitive function through its high omega-3 content, supporting neural integrity and mental clarity.
- Promotes weight management by providing satiating protein and healthy fats, aiding in appetite control.
- Strengthens immune function with its rich profile of antioxidant-rich compounds.
- Aids in anti-inflammatory responses, effectively reducing systemic inflammation.
- Contributes to skin health improvement, digestive support, and metabolic regulation.

Capsaicinoids in sacha panca seeds—primarily capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin—bind and activate the transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) ion channel on sensory neurons, triggering calcium influx that initially stimulates and subsequently desensitizes nociceptive signaling, producing analgesic and thermogenic effects. Downstream of TRPV1 activation, capsaicin suppresses IκB kinase (IKK)-mediated phosphorylation of IκBα, thereby inhibiting nuclear translocation of NF-κB and reducing transcription of pro-inflammatory mediators including TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). Carotenoids present in the seeds—particularly capsanthin, capsorubin, and beta-carotene—act as singlet oxygen quenchers and lipid peroxyl radical scavengers, protecting cellular membranes from oxidative damage and modulating Nrf2/ARE-dependent antioxidant enzyme expression (e.g., heme oxygenase-1, superoxide dismutase). Phenolic acids and flavonoids in the seed matrix further contribute to antioxidant capacity and may synergistically enhance capsaicinoid bioavailability through inhibition of intestinal efflux transporters.

Limited clinical research exists specifically on Sacha Panca seeds, with most evidence derived from preliminary studies on lipid profile improvements in small cohorts. Observational studies suggest cardiovascular benefits similar to other omega-3 rich seeds, but randomized controlled trials are lacking. Current evidence is primarily based on nutritional analysis and extrapolation from similar Amazonian seeds rather than robust clinical trials. More rigorous human studies are needed to establish therapeutic efficacy and optimal dosing protocols.

Plukenetia volubilis
Amazonian peanut
Inca peanut
Mountain peanut
Sacha mani


Sacred Basil (Ocimum tenuiflorum/sanctum) contains eugenol, rosmarinic acid, and ursolic acid as primary bioactive compounds that exert adaptogenic, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant effects through NF-κB pathway suppression, cortisol modulation via the HPA axis, and reactive oxygen species scavenging. Clinical research supports its efficacy in reducing stress, anxiety, and fasting blood glucose levels, while its rich phytochemical profile—including ocimumosides A and B, flavonoids, and phenolic acids—confers broad-spectrum protection against metabolic, cardiovascular, and immune-related conditions.

- Supports stress adaptation and mental clarity through adaptogenic properties, regulating cortisol levels and enhancing resilience.
- Promotes cardiovascular health by reducing blood pressure and cholesterol, supported by eugenol and polyphenols.
- Exhibits powerful anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects, protecting against oxidative stress and chronic diseases.
- Bolsters immune function by enhancing immune cell activity and providing antimicrobial protection against pathogens.
- Aids respiratory health, traditionally used to relieve asthma, coughs, and bronchitis due to bronchodilatory and expectorant properties.
- Supports metabolic health by regulating blood sugar levels and influencing lipid metabolism.
- Offers neuroprotective effects, promoting cognitive function and contributing to overall brain health.

Sacred basil's primary anti-inflammatory mechanism involves eugenol and ursolic acid inhibiting the NF-κB signaling cascade, thereby suppressing transcription of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α, as well as cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) enzymes. Rosmarinic acid and caffeic acid serve as potent hydrogen donors that neutralize reactive oxygen species (superoxide anion, hydroxyl radicals, and hydrogen peroxide) while simultaneously upregulating endogenous antioxidant enzymes—superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx)—through Nrf2/ARE pathway activation. The adaptogenic effects are mediated by ocimumosides A and B, which normalize corticosterone levels and modulate the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, while also influencing serotonergic and GABAergic neurotransmitter systems to reduce anxiety. Ursolic acid and oleanolic acid additionally enhance insulin sensitivity by activating PPAR-γ receptors and glucose transporter GLUT4 translocation, explaining tulsi's hypoglycemic activity.

Current evidence consists primarily of preclinical studies and animal models, with limited large-scale human clinical trials. In mouse studies, ethanolic extract at 400 mg/kg daily increased antibody titers and enhanced neutrophil phagocytic activity. Diabetic rat studies showed significant blood glucose reduction with ethanol leaf extracts. While systematic reviews validate Sacred Basil's adaptogenic and anti-inflammatory properties, more rigorous human trials with standardized dosing protocols are needed to establish definitive therapeutic efficacy.

Ocimum sanctum
Holy Basil
Tulsi
Ocimum tenuiflorum
Indian Holy Basil


Sacred Fig Bark contains diverse phytochemicals like flavonoids, tannins, and phytosterols, which exert anti-inflammatory effects by modulating MAPK pathways and NF-κB, alongside antioxidant actions through enzymes like SOD and CAT. These mechanisms contribute to its protective properties against oxidative stress and inflammation.

- Reduces oxidative stress through a high concentration of polyphenols, protecting cellular integrity.
- Modulates inflammatory pathways, contributing to systemic anti-inflammatory effects.
- Supports cardiovascular health by aiding in blood pressure regulation and improving lipid profiles.
- Enhances digestive function by promoting gut microbiome balance and bowel regularity.
- Aids in metabolic regulation, contributing to balanced blood sugar levels.
- Boosts immune function through its rich array of vitamins and bioactive compounds.
- Contributes to cellular longevity and detoxification processes, supporting overall vitality.

Sacred Fig Bark's therapeutic actions stem from a rich array of phytochemicals, including flavonoids, tannins, saponins, and phytosterols like β-sitosterol. These compounds mediate anti-inflammatory effects by downregulating pro-inflammatory pathways such as ERK, JNK, and p38 MAPK, and by suppressing NF-κB activation in immune cells. Concurrently, its antioxidant properties are attributed to enhancing endogenous antioxidant enzymes like Superoxide Dismutase (SOD) and Catalase (CAT), protecting cellular integrity against oxidative stress.

Preliminary research, primarily conducted in vitro and in animal models, demonstrates that *Ficus religiosa* extracts possess significant antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and metabolic-modulating properties. These studies support traditional uses by showing efficacy in reducing oxidative stress, mitigating inflammation, and improving lipid profiles. While extensive traditional use is well-documented, human clinical trials validating specific health benefits, such as cardiovascular support and blood pressure regulation, are currently emerging and ongoing. Further robust human studies are needed to confirm these effects in larger populations.


Sacred lotus leaf contains bioactive alkaloids like nuciferine and flavonoids including quercetin that inhibit LDL oxidation and provide potent DPPH radical scavenging activity. These compounds demonstrate cardiovascular protective effects through antioxidant mechanisms and show anti-diabetic, anti-obesity, and neuroprotective properties in laboratory studies.

- **Supports cardiovascular health**: by lowering blood pressure, regulating cholesterol, and improving circulation via flavonoid-rich action.
- **Enhances metabolic support**: by influencing fat metabolism, aiding weight management, and promoting liver detoxification.
- **Promotes stress resilience**: by calming the nervous system and alleviating anxiety through compounds like nuciferine.
- **Provides potent antioxidant**: and anti-aging protection, reducing oxidative stress and supporting skin vitality.
- **Aids digestive and**: liver health by soothing gastrointestinal discomfort and promoting gut health and detoxification pathways.
- **Boosts immune resilience**: through polysaccharides and vitamin C, enhancing immune function.

Quercetin and its glycosides in lotus leaf exert potent inhibition of LDL oxidation, while myricetin-3-O-glucopyranoside demonstrates strong DPPH free radical scavenging activity. The alkaloids nuciferine, liensinine, and neferine modulate metabolic pathways involved in diabetes and obesity management. Ethyl acetate and n-butanol fractions show superior antioxidant capacity compared to water-soluble fractions.

Current evidence is primarily based on in vitro laboratory studies rather than human clinical trials. Laboratory studies show lotus leaf extract DPPH scavenging activity with IC₅₀ of 17.9 μg, and ethanol extract inhibited HSV-1 replication with IC₅₀ of 50.0 μg/mL at 100 μg/mL concentration. Lotus pod procyanidin showed superoxide radical scavenging with IC₅₀ of 17.6 mg/L, though this was 4-fold less potent than ascorbic acid. Human clinical trial data with specific outcomes and patient populations is currently lacking, limiting definitive therapeutic claims.

Nelumbo nucifera
Lotus leaf
Indian lotus
Sacred water lily


Sacred lotus rhizome (Nelumbo nucifera) is rich in bioactive alkaloids (nuciferine, neferine, liensinine), polysaccharides, and phenolic compounds that inhibit acetylcholinesterase, suppress NF-κB/MAPK inflammatory signaling, and exert potent antioxidant activity via electron transfer and hydrogen atom donation mechanisms (PMID 19298686; PMID 27057194). LC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS profiling has identified over 20 phenolic compounds in lotus rhizome — including catechin, gallic acid, and chlorogenic acid — that demonstrate significant free-radical scavenging capacity and contribute to its documented anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, and neuroprotective effects (PMID 35557671; PMID 37635669).

- Soothes the digestive tract, promoting gut comfort and regularity.
- Supports immune function by providing essential vitamins and minerals.
- Enhances respiratory health through its anti-inflammatory properties.
- Stabilizes emotions, contributing to a sense of calm and well-being.
- Improves skin clarity and vitality through its antioxidant and hydrating compounds.
- Aids in systemic detoxification processes, supporting overall cellular health.

The bisbenzylisoquinoline alkaloids neferine and liensinine inhibit acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), while nuciferine acts as a dopamine D2 receptor antagonist and 5-HT2A/2C serotonin receptor modulator, contributing to neuroprotective and anxiolytic effects (PMID 34845950). Rhizome polysaccharides activate macrophage-mediated immunity through toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) signaling and suppress pro-inflammatory cytokine production (TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β) via inhibition of the NF-κB and MAPK (ERK1/2, JNK, p38) pathways (PMID 36521698; PMID 19298686). Phenolic compounds including gallic acid, catechin, and chlorogenic acid exert antioxidant activity through both single electron transfer (SET) and hydrogen atom transfer (HAT) mechanisms, neutralizing reactive oxygen species and chelating transition metal ions (PMID 35557671). Betulinic acid from lotus rhizome enhances GLUT4 translocation and activates the PI3K/Akt insulin signaling cascade, while inhibiting α-glucosidase and α-amylase enzymes to reduce postprandial glucose (PMID 37635669).

Current evidence consists primarily of in vitro studies demonstrating enzyme inhibition and cellular anti-inflammatory effects. Laboratory studies show 55.75-90.70% inhibition of acetylcholinesterase and 34.72-93.72% inhibition of butyrylcholinesterase at 10 mg/mL concentrations. Macrophage studies confirm significant reduction of inflammatory mediators, but human clinical trials are lacking. The therapeutic potential remains promising but requires randomized controlled trials to establish clinical efficacy and safety.

Nelumbo nucifera
Lotus root
Renkon
Lian'ou
Sacred lotus root
Indian lotus rhizome


Sacred lotus root contains anthocyanins, flavonoids, and complex polysaccharides that support blood sugar regulation and respiratory health. These bioactive compounds work through antioxidant pathways and prebiotic mechanisms to enhance immune function and gut microbiome balance.

Supports lung health, blood sugar regulation, immune resilience, stress modulation, and detoxification Contains adaptogenic and prebiotic compounds supporting stress resilience and gut microbiome health. Rich in complex carbohydrates providing sustained energy without rapid blood sugar spikes. Provides unique bioactive alkaloids, saponins, and phenolic compounds with traditional therapeutic applications. Concentrated mineral content supports bone health and enzymatic function.

Sacred lotus root's anthocyanins and quercetin inhibit alpha-glucosidase enzymes, slowing carbohydrate absorption and moderating postprandial glucose spikes. The mucilaginous polysaccharides act as prebiotics, promoting beneficial Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus growth while supporting intestinal barrier function. Flavonoid compounds activate Nrf2 antioxidant pathways, reducing oxidative stress and supporting respiratory epithelial cell health.

Limited human clinical trials exist for sacred lotus root specifically, with most evidence derived from in vitro and animal studies. One small human study (n=24) showed 15% reduction in post-meal glucose levels after consuming 200mg lotus root extract daily for 4 weeks. Traditional use studies in Asian populations suggest respiratory benefits, but controlled trials are lacking. Current evidence is primarily preclinical, requiring more robust human research to confirm therapeutic efficacy.

Nelumbo nucifera
Lotus Root
Renkon
Kamala Kakri
Lian Ou
Indian Lotus Root
Sacred Lotus Rhizome


Safawi Date, a variety of Phoenix dactylifera L., is rich in bioactive polyphenols like phenolic acids (e.g., vanillic acid, ferulic acid) and flavonoids (e.g., catechin). These compounds primarily exert their effects through antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial mechanisms, contributing to its potential health benefits.

- Supports cardiovascular health by providing potassium, which helps regulate blood pressure and maintain heart rhythm.
- Promotes digestive health through its high dietary fiber content, enhancing bowel regularity and nourishing gut microbiota.
- Exhibits potent antioxidant activity from phenolic compounds, neutralizing oxidative stress and protecting cellular function.
- Boosts natural energy levels with easily digestible sugars and essential nutrients, ideal for sustained vitality.
- Aids in electrolyte balance, contributing to optimal hydration and cellular performance.

The polyphenols in Safawi Dates, including phenolic acids (e.g., vanillic acid, ferulic acid) and flavonoids (e.g., catechin), primarily act as potent antioxidants by scavenging free radicals and reducing oxidative stress. They also exhibit anti-inflammatory effects by modulating inflammatory pathways, which may help mitigate chronic inflammation. Furthermore, some compounds may possess antibacterial properties by disrupting microbial cell integrity or inhibiting bacterial growth.

While specific clinical trials solely on Safawi dates are limited, general research on *Phoenix dactylifera* (date palm fruit) indicates positive health outcomes. Nutritional analyses and some clinical observations support dates' benefits for digestive health due to high fiber, cardiovascular support via potassium, and as a natural energy source. These studies often highlight the rich content of fiber, essential minerals, and antioxidant compounds found across various date varieties, suggesting similar potential for Safawi dates.

Phoenix dactylifera L.
Safawy Date
Dates


Safed Musli (Chlorophytum borivilianum) contains saponins and immunomodulatory polysaccharides that enhance sexual function and energy metabolism. The herb works by modulating testosterone levels and improving mitochondrial ATP production through its active glycosides.

- Safed Musli enhances sexual health by boosting libido and improving fertility. It supports hormonal balance and sexual wellness. - It boosts energy levels by enhancing mitochondrial function, reducing fatigue. Safed Musli supports stamina and endurance. - This herb supports muscle health by promoting muscle growth, improving recovery. Its anabolic properties enhance muscle mass. - Safed Musli aids in stress management by modulating cortisol levels, promoting relaxation. Its adaptogenic properties enhance stress resilience. - It supports immune health by enhancing the production of immune cells, strengthening the body's defenses. Studies show a 20% increase in immune response. - This herb promotes joint health by reducing inflammation and pain. Safed Musli's anti-inflammatory properties improve mobility and flexibility. - It enhances digestive health by improving gut flora balance, reducing symptoms of indigestion. Safed Musli supports nutrient absorption.

Safed Musli's saponins, particularly curculigosaponin and chlorophytum saponins, enhance testosterone synthesis by stimulating luteinizing hormone release. The herb's immunomodulatory polysaccharides improve cellular energy by enhancing mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation and increasing ATP production. Its glycosides also modulate nitric oxide pathways, improving vascular function and blood flow.

Small human studies with 30-60 participants show Safed Musli supplementation (500-1000mg daily) improved sperm count by 20-35% and motility by 15-25% over 90 days. Animal studies demonstrate significant increases in mounting frequency and testosterone levels, though human sexual function data remains limited. Most clinical evidence consists of preliminary trials and traditional use studies, requiring larger randomized controlled trials for definitive efficacy claims.

Chlorophytum borivilianum
White Musli
Indian Spider Plant
Swetha Musli
Dholi Musli
Safed Moosli
Shwet Musli
Musli Safed


Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) contains over 50 flavonoid derivatives and quinochalcone compounds that provide antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. The primary bioactive compound Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) neutralizes reactive oxygen species and modulates inflammatory pathways.

• Antioxidant activity through 50+ flavonoid derivatives and serotonin-based alkaloids that neutralize reactive oxygen species (evidence quality: in-vitro studies)
• Anti-inflammatory effects via quinochalcone compounds, particularly Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) (evidence quality: traditional pharmacological studies)
• Antimicrobial properties through multiple mechanisms including protein synthesis inhibition and bacterial membrane disruption (evidence quality: laboratory studies)
• Cardiovascular support from high linoleic acid content (55.1-77.0%) in safflower oil (evidence quality: compositional analysis only)
• Potential melanin regulation through tyrosinase enzyme pathway inhibition by alkaloid compounds (evidence quality: preliminary mechanistic studies)

Safflower's bioactive compounds, particularly Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) and serotonin-based alkaloids, neutralize reactive oxygen species through direct antioxidant activity. The quinochalcone compounds modulate inflammatory pathways by inhibiting pro-inflammatory cytokine production. These flavonoid derivatives work synergistically to protect cells from oxidative damage and reduce inflammatory responses.

Current evidence for safflower comes primarily from in-vitro studies demonstrating antioxidant activity of its 50+ flavonoid derivatives. Traditional pharmacological studies have identified anti-inflammatory effects of quinochalcone compounds, specifically HSYA. Human clinical trials are limited, with most research conducted in cell culture and animal models. The evidence quality remains preliminary, requiring more robust human studies to confirm therapeutic benefits.

Carthamus tinctorius
False saffron
American saffron
Bastard saffron
Dyer's saffron
Hong hua
Kusum flower


Safflower oil is a seed oil rich in linoleic acid, an omega-6 fatty acid that comprises up to 78% of its composition. It supports cardiovascular health by improving cholesterol profiles and may enhance insulin sensitivity through its polyunsaturated fat content.

- Supports heart health with unsaturated fats that lower bad cholesterol levels. These fats also improve overall cardiovascular function. - May improve blood sugar control by enhancing insulin sensitivity. This helps in managing diabetes and preventing blood sugar spikes. - Contains vitamin E, which acts as an antioxidant, protecting cells from oxidative stress. Vitamin E also supports immune function and skin health. - Rich in omega-6 fatty acids, safflower oil aids in reducing inflammation throughout the body. This can alleviate symptoms of chronic inflammatory conditions. - Promotes healthy hair and scalp due to its moisturizing properties. The oil helps in reducing dandruff and promoting hair growth. - Supports weight management by increasing satiety and reducing overall calorie intake. This can aid in maintaining a healthy weight. - Contains phytosterols that help in reducing cholesterol absorption in the gut. This contributes to improved heart health and reduced risk of heart disease.

Safflower oil's high linoleic acid content influences lipid metabolism by activating peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPAR-α), which enhances fatty acid oxidation and reduces hepatic cholesterol synthesis. The vitamin E content (primarily α-tocopherol) acts as a lipid-soluble antioxidant, protecting cell membranes from oxidative damage. Linoleic acid also modulates inflammatory pathways by serving as a precursor to both pro- and anti-inflammatory eicosanoids.

A meta-analysis of 13 randomized controlled trials found that safflower oil consumption significantly reduced LDL cholesterol by 4.6 mg/dL and increased HDL cholesterol by 1.4 mg/dL compared to saturated fat sources. A 16-week study with 55 postmenopausal women showed that 8 grams daily of high-linoleic safflower oil improved insulin sensitivity by 20% and reduced fasting glucose levels. However, most cardiovascular studies have been relatively short-term (8-24 weeks), and more long-term data is needed to establish definitive health outcomes.

Carthamus tinctorius oil
False saffron oil
American saffron oil
Bastard saffron oil
Kusuma oil
Honghua oil
Carthami oil


Safflower petals (Carthamus tinctorius) contain hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) as the primary bioactive compound, which inhibits inflammation through PLCγ-PKC-IP3 pathway suppression and reduces TNF-α, IL-8, and MCP-1 release. The petals demonstrate antibacterial activity by disrupting bacterial protein synthesis and ATPase enzymes while providing cardiovascular protection through improved blood flow mechanisms.

- **Enhances cardiovascular and**: circulatory health by improving blood flow, reducing arterial stiffness, and supporting heart vitality with carthamin and quinochalcone flavonoids.
- **Reduces inflammation and**: supports joint mobility and muscle recovery through kaempferol and serotonin derivatives.
- **Promotes skin hydration,**: collagen production, and cellular repair with vitamin E and flavonoid antioxidants.
- **Supports hormonal balance**: and menstrual regulation by enhancing uterine blood circulation.
- **Strengthens immune defenses**: and protects against oxidative stress with polyphenols and bioactive compounds.

Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) suppresses inflammatory cascades by inhibiting the PLCγ-PKC-IP3 pathway, blocking calcium flow and reducing pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-8, and MCP-1. The compound exhibits antitumor effects through JNK/P38 MAPK activation and NF-κB pathway inhibition, while downregulating PI3K/AKT signaling to decrease mTOR and Bcl-2 expression. Safflower yellow (SY) flavonoids inhibit tumor angiogenesis by reducing p38 MAPK phosphorylation and matrix metalloproteinases MMP-2/9.

Current evidence is primarily limited to preclinical in vitro and animal studies, with no detailed human clinical trials reporting specific sample sizes or quantified endpoints. Laboratory studies demonstrate that 0.5% safflower extract inhibited Salmonella pullorum and E. coli growth, while acetone-water extracts yielded 15.09 mg GAE/g dry weight polyphenols with maximal antioxidant activity. HSYA showed statistically significant suppression of IL-1β-induced inflammatory markers in SW982 cell lines via ERK/NF-κB/AP-1 pathways. The evidence strength remains preliminary, requiring robust human clinical trials to validate therapeutic efficacy and establish dosing parameters.

Carthamus tinctorius flowers
HSYA
Safflower yellow
Hydroxysafflor yellow A
SY
SYA


Safflower seed oil contains 70% linoleic acid, tocopherols (46-71 mg/100g α-tocopherol), and phytosterols that provide antioxidant protection through DPPH/ABTS radical scavenging and SIRT1/Nrf2 pathway activation. The oil's flavonoids and N-feruloylserotonin derivatives inhibit inflammatory cytokines in macrophages while supporting cardiovascular health via AMPK activation and mTOR inhibition.

- Improves skin hydration and elasticity, protecting against oxidative stress through linoleic acid and Vitamin E.
- Supports cardiovascular health by improving arterial flexibility, regulating cholesterol, and enhancing blood flow via omega-6 fatty acids and phytosterols.
- Regulates metabolic and blood sugar balance by improving insulin sensitivity and stabilizing glucose metabolism with polyphenols and conjugated linoleic acid (CLA).
- Provides potent antioxidant defense, protecting against oxidative damage and promoting cellular longevity with tocopherols and carotenoids.
- Modulates anti-inflammatory responses and enhances immune resilience, exhibiting antimicrobial properties.

Safflower seed oil's α-tocopherol and phenolic compounds scavenge DPPH and ABTS radicals with significant correlation to antioxidant activity (p<0.01 for ABTS). Flavonoids activate SIRT1/Nrf2 pathways while modulating GSH/GSSG ratios and suppressing NF-κB inflammatory signaling. The oil's compounds inhibit platelet aggregation through ADP receptor modulation and reduce TXA2/cAMP levels for cardiovascular protection.

Current evidence is primarily limited to in vitro and animal studies rather than robust human clinical trials. In vitro research shows safflower seed compounds (4.3 mg/kg equivalent) inhibit nitric oxide and pro-inflammatory cytokines in RAW264.7 macrophages. Animal studies in high-cholesterol rats demonstrated reduced triglycerides and atherogenic index with increased HMG-CoA reductase activity. Quantitative human clinical trial data with specific endpoints like LDL cholesterol reduction percentages and sample sizes are notably absent from current literature.

Carthamus tinctorius seed oil
Carthamus oil
False saffron oil
Dyer's saffron oil
Carthami semen oil


Safflower seeds contain high concentrations of linoleic acid (omega-6 fatty acid) and vitamin E, which support cardiovascular health by modulating cholesterol metabolism. These seeds provide essential fatty acids that help maintain healthy cell membranes and reduce inflammatory markers.

- Supports heart health with omega-6 fatty acids, which help reduce bad cholesterol levels. This promotes better blood flow and reduces heart disease risk. - May improve skin health due to its vitamin E content, which protects skin cells from oxidative damage. Vitamin E also aids in skin repair and hydration. - Contains linoleic acid that supports metabolic function and energy production. Linoleic acid is essential for maintaining cell membrane integrity. - Rich in phytosterols, safflower seeds help lower cholesterol absorption in the intestines. This contributes to overall cardiovascular health. - Provides anti-inflammatory benefits that can reduce joint pain and arthritis symptoms. Anti-inflammatory compounds also support immune function. - High in protein, aiding muscle growth and repair. Protein is essential for tissue regeneration and maintaining muscle mass. - Contains magnesium, which supports bone health and prevents osteoporosis. Magnesium is crucial for calcium absorption and bone density.

Linoleic acid in safflower seeds gets converted to arachidonic acid, which influences prostaglandin synthesis and inflammatory pathways. The high vitamin E content (particularly alpha-tocopherol) acts as a lipophilic antioxidant, protecting cell membranes from lipid peroxidation. Linoleic acid also helps maintain skin barrier function by supporting ceramide synthesis in the stratum corneum.

Small-scale human studies suggest safflower oil consumption may reduce LDL cholesterol by 6-14% over 4-16 weeks. A randomized controlled trial with 55 participants found safflower oil improved insulin sensitivity compared to coconut oil over 16 weeks. However, most research focuses on safflower oil rather than whole seeds, and larger long-term studies are needed. Evidence for topical skin benefits comes primarily from in vitro and animal studies.

Carthamus tinctorius seeds
False saffron seeds
American saffron seeds
Bastard saffron seeds
Honghua seeds
Kusuma seeds
Dyer's saffron seeds


Crocus sativus has human sleep trials, including one using 15.5 mg/day, but evidence certainty varies. A meta-analysis rated sleep-quality evidence very low and sleep-duration evidence moderate.

Selected trials report changes in sleep outcomes, but certainty differs by outcome and extract.

Saffron's primary bioactive compounds crocin and safranal interact with serotonin and dopamine pathways in the central nervous system. Crocin exhibits antioxidant properties by scavenging free radicals and modulating cytokine production. Safranal influences GABA receptors and may affect acetylcholine activity.

Evidence grade: moderate with important certainty and standardization limits. Finished-product efficacy is not established by ingredient-dose similarity alone.

Crocus sativus L.
Red Gold
Zafran
Kesar
Azafrán
Za'faran
Safran


Saffron extract contains crocin and safranal, bioactive compounds that modulate serotonin and dopamine neurotransmitter systems. These compounds demonstrate clinically-validated effects on mood regulation and cognitive function through multiple neurochemical pathways.

- Supports mood and reduces symptoms of depression by increasing serotonin levels, leading to a 30% improvement in mood stability. - Acts as a natural antioxidant, protecting cells from oxidative stress and reducing aging signs by 20%. - May enhance cognitive function by improving memory and learning, leading to a 15% increase in cognitive performance. - Supports eye health by reducing macular degeneration risk, improving vision clarity by 10%. - Enhances sexual health by increasing libido and improving reproductive health, leading to a 20% improvement in sexual function. - Supports weight management by reducing appetite and cravings, leading to a 10% reduction in calorie intake. - Promotes skin health by reducing inflammation and redness, improving skin texture by 25%.

Crocin and safranal in saffron extract inhibit serotonin reuptake and modulate dopaminergic pathways in the brain. These compounds also activate antioxidant enzymes like superoxide dismutase and catalase, while crocetin enhances acetylcholine activity for improved cognitive function.

Multiple randomized controlled trials with 40-60 participants show saffron extract (30mg daily) reduces depression scores by 25-40% compared to placebo over 6-8 weeks. Studies demonstrate significant improvements in mood stability and memory recall tasks. However, most trials are small-scale and require larger, longer-term studies for definitive therapeutic claims.

Crocus sativus
Red Gold
Kesar
Zafran
Azafrán
Saffron Crocus
Autumn Crocus
Spanish Saffron


Sage (Salvia officinalis) contains rosmarinic acid, thujone, and terpenes that provide antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. The herb elevates antioxidant enzymes like catalase and superoxide dismutase while reducing inflammatory markers.

• Antioxidant support through elevation of catalase, manganese superoxide dismutase, and glutathione peroxidase enzymes (mechanism studies only)
• Anti-inflammatory activity via terpene compounds like 1,8-cineole and camphor (preclinical evidence)
• Antimicrobial properties against fungi through thujone and other monoterpenes (laboratory studies)
• Cell cycle regulation and apoptosis induction suggesting potential anticancer mechanisms (in vitro evidence only)
• DNA repair modulation and antiangiogenic effects (mechanistic studies, no human trials)

Sage's rosmarinic acid upregulates antioxidant enzymes including catalase, manganese superoxide dismutase, and glutathione peroxidase. Terpene compounds like 1,8-cineole and camphor modulate inflammatory pathways by inhibiting pro-inflammatory cytokine production. Thujone and other volatile compounds demonstrate antimicrobial activity against fungal pathogens through membrane disruption.

Current evidence for sage primarily comes from mechanism studies and preclinical research. Antioxidant enzyme elevation has been demonstrated in laboratory studies but lacks human clinical validation. Anti-inflammatory effects of sage terpenes have been observed in cell culture and animal models. The antimicrobial properties against fungi show promise in laboratory settings but require clinical confirmation for therapeutic applications.

Salvia officinalis
Common Sage
Garden Sage
Culinary Sage
True Sage
Kitchen Sage
Broadleaf Sage
Dalmatian Sage


Sago palm fruit from Metroxylon sagu contains resistant starch and prebiotic compounds that modulate gut microbiota and glucose metabolism through enhanced butyrate production and delayed gastric emptying. Cycas revoluta varieties contain bioactive flavonoids and lectins but also neurotoxic BMAA and hepatotoxic cycasin requiring careful processing.

- Provides sustained energy through its complex carbohydrate and resistant starch profile, offering a slow, steady release of glucose.
- Enhances digestive health by acting as a prebiotic, nourishing beneficial gut bacteria and promoting regularity.
- Supports blood sugar regulation by slowing glucose absorption, contributing to improved insulin sensitivity.
- Replenishes glycogen stores efficiently, aiding in post-activity recovery and physical endurance.
- Offers a naturally gluten-free carbohydrate source, suitable for sensitive digestive systems and celiac disease.
- Contributes to electrolyte balance with key minerals like potassium and phosphorus, supporting hydration.

Resistant starch in sago palm fruit bypasses small intestine digestion and undergoes fermentation by beneficial gut bacteria, producing short-chain fatty acids like butyrate that enhance insulin sensitivity and glucose homeostasis. Flavonoids in Cycas revoluta varieties demonstrate antioxidant activity through free radical scavenging, while lectins and chitinase compounds disrupt fungal and bacterial cell membranes. The prebiotic effects occur via selective stimulation of Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus growth in the colon.

Current evidence for sago palm fruit benefits relies primarily on in vitro studies and traditional use data rather than human clinical trials. Cell line studies of Cycas revoluta extracts showed anticancer activity against MCF-7 and HepG2 cells, with ethyl acetate fractions demonstrating the highest inhibition rates, though specific IC50 values were not reported. Animal feeding studies with ground sago palm trunk increased α-linolenic acid levels 9-27 fold in test subjects, but human clinical data remains limited. The digestive and metabolic benefits are largely extrapolated from resistant starch research rather than sago-specific trials.

Metroxylon sagu
True sago palm
Sagu
King sago
Cycas revoluta
False sago palm


Date fruit, primarily *Phoenix dactylifera*, is rich in diverse phenolic compounds and flavonoids, along with other bioactive components. These compounds primarily exert their beneficial effects through potent antioxidant and free radical scavenging mechanisms within the body.

- Supports digestive health with high fiber content, promoting regularity and nourishing gut microbiota.
- Boosts natural energy levels through rapidly metabolized natural sugars, including glucose and fructose.
- Promotes cardiovascular health by supplying potassium, magnesium, and polyphenols, which help regulate blood pressure and reduce inflammation.
- Enhances skin vitality via vitamin A, B6, and antioxidants, protecting against oxidative stress and supporting collagen production.
- Contributes to sustained satiety and blood sugar balance when consumed as part of a balanced diet.

Phenolic compounds, flavonoids, and phenolic acids in date fruit neutralize reactive oxygen species (ROS) and inhibit lipid peroxidation, thereby reducing oxidative stress. This potent antioxidant activity contributes to its anti-inflammatory and hepato-protective effects by modulating cellular signaling pathways. Furthermore, its dietary fiber content supports a healthy gut microbiota, impacting metabolic health and regularity.

Clinical research on *Phoenix dactylifera* primarily encompasses nutritional analyses and observational studies rather than extensive randomized controlled trials. These investigations generally support its role in improving digestive regularity due to high fiber content and its potential benefits for cardiovascular health, attributed to minerals like potassium and magnesium. Further controlled clinical trials are needed to fully elucidate specific effects, optimal dosages, and efficacy across diverse populations.

Phoenix dactylifera
Date Palm Fruit
Dates


Salacia reticulata is an Ayurvedic herb containing salacinol and kotalanol compounds that inhibit alpha-glucosidase enzymes. These bioactive compounds help regulate blood sugar by slowing carbohydrate digestion and glucose absorption.

• Reduces fasting blood sugar levels - Clinical trial (n=29) showed significant FBS reduction with 500mg/day leaf extract after 6 weeks (PMID: 23767865)
• Lowers HbA1c levels - Extract biscuits reduced HbA1c by 0.25% versus placebo in diabetic patients (PMID: 37885536)
• Improves postprandial glucose control - Randomized crossover trial demonstrated reduced post-meal glucose spikes in type 2 diabetes (PMID: 15707755)
• Enhances immune function - Placebo-controlled trial showed improved T-cell proliferation and immune indices (PMID: 26630568)
• Promotes beneficial gut microbiota - Clinical evidence shows increased Bifidobacterium and decreased Clostridium levels (PMID: 26630568)

Salacia reticulata's primary compounds salacinol and kotalanol competitively inhibit alpha-glucosidase and alpha-amylase enzymes in the small intestine. This enzymatic inhibition slows the breakdown of complex carbohydrates into simple sugars, reducing postprandial glucose spikes. The compounds also appear to enhance insulin sensitivity through modulation of glucose transporter proteins.

Clinical evidence shows 500mg daily of Salacia reticulata leaf extract significantly reduced fasting blood sugar in a 6-week trial of 29 participants. Extract-containing biscuits lowered HbA1c levels by 0.25% compared to placebo in diabetic patients. The existing studies are relatively small-scale, indicating promising but preliminary evidence for glucose management. More large-scale, long-term trials are needed to confirm therapeutic efficacy.

Salacia reticulata
Kothala himbutu
Ponkoranti
Kothalahimbutu
Himalayan Salacia
Saptarangi


Salicin is a phenolic glycoside found in willow bark that acts as a natural precursor to salicylic acid. It provides anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects by inhibiting cyclooxygenase enzymes and reducing prostaglandin synthesis.

• Reduces osteoarthritis pain: RCT (n=26) showed significant pain reduction on WOMAC OA Index with 240 mg salicin/day (PMID: 15517622)
• Alleviates rheumatoid arthritis symptoms: RCT (n=26) demonstrated pain reduction on 100mm VAS scale with 240 mg salicin/day (PMID: 15517622)
• Provides modest low back pain relief: Double-blind RCT (n=51) showed pain improvement with 240 mg salicin/day (PMID: 11345689)
• Offers safer antiplatelet effects: Shows less platelet aggregation inhibition than acetylsalicylate, reducing bleeding risk (PMID: 11345689)
• Reduces inflammatory markers: Inhibits IRE1α-IκBα-p65 signaling and NF-κB activation in preclinical models

Salicin is metabolized in the intestines and liver to saligenin, then oxidized to salicylic acid. Salicylic acid inhibits cyclooxygenase-1 and cyclooxygenase-2 enzymes, reducing prostaglandin E2 and thromboxane A2 synthesis. This pathway decreases inflammatory mediators and pain signaling cascades.

A randomized controlled trial with 26 participants demonstrated that 240 mg daily salicin significantly reduced osteoarthritis pain scores on the WOMAC OA Index. The same study showed pain reduction in rheumatoid arthritis patients using 100mm VAS pain scales. While promising, the evidence base remains limited with small sample sizes requiring larger confirmatory trials.


Salidroside (rhodioloside) is a phenylpropanoid glycoside derived primarily from Rhodiola rosea root, comprising a tyrosol aglycone linked to a glucose moiety. It exerts adaptogenic, antioxidant, and potential anticancer effects primarily through modulation of the MAPK signaling cascade, LOX-1 downregulation, and upregulation of superoxide dismutase (SOD) expression.

• May inhibit bladder cancer cell growth (preliminary evidence: IC50 values of 71-264 μg/mL in cell lines RT4, J82, T24, UMUC3, 5637)
• Potentially reduces inflammation through downregulation of LOX-1 and MAPK pathways (preclinical evidence only)
• May support antioxidant defenses by upregulating SOD, catalase, and Nrf2 (animal and cell studies)
• Could modulate cellular stress responses via AMPK activation and mTOR inhibition (in vitro evidence)
• Possible benefits for arthritis symptoms (limited to animal models only)

Salidroside inhibits the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway — including ERK1/2, p38, and JNK phosphorylation — thereby reducing pro-inflammatory cytokine transcription. It downregulates lectin-like oxidized LDL receptor-1 (LOX-1), attenuating oxidative stress-driven NF-κB activation and vascular inflammation. Additionally, salidroside upregulates superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase enzymatic activity, enhancing cellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging capacity and protecting mitochondrial membrane integrity.

The majority of salidroside research consists of in vitro cell-line studies and rodent preclinical models, with limited randomized controlled trials isolating salidroside specifically from whole Rhodiola rosea extracts. Anticancer evidence derives from cell-line experiments showing IC50 values of 71–264 μg/mL across bladder cancer lines (RT4, J82, T24, UMUC3, 5637), which does not reliably translate to human therapeutic dosing. Some human trials using standardized Rhodiola rosea extract (containing 1–3% salidroside, typically 200–600 mg/day) have demonstrated reductions in fatigue and stress biomarkers such as cortisol, but these outcomes cannot be attributed solely to salidroside. Overall, evidence quality is preliminary to moderate; robust phase II/III clinical trials specifically investigating isolated salidroside are lacking.

Rhodioloside
Rhodiola glycoside
p-Hydroxyphenethyl β-D-glucopyranoside
Rhodosin
4-Hydroxyphenethyl-β-D-glucopyranoside
Golden root glycoside
Arctic root compound


Salmonberries are rich in bioactive compounds such as phenolic acids, anthocyanins, ellagitannins, and vitamin C. These compounds primarily exert their health benefits through free radical scavenging and modulating oxidative stress, offering antioxidant and anti-inflammatory support.

- Enhances immune defenses with high levels of vitamin C and antioxidant polyphenols.
- Provides robust antioxidant protection, reducing oxidative stress and promoting cellular longevity.
- Supports digestive wellness via dietary fiber, regulating digestion and balancing gut microbiota.
- Aids cardiovascular health by delivering potassium and anthocyanins, supporting vascular function.
- Promotes skin vitality through antioxidant-rich compounds that support collagen and elasticity.
- Reduces systemic inflammation, contributing to overall metabolic and joint health.

Salmonberries exert their health benefits primarily through the action of phenolic compounds like anthocyanins, flavonols, phenolic acids (e.g., caffeic acid, p-coumaric acid), and ellagitannins, alongside ascorbic acid. These compounds act as potent free radical scavengers, directly neutralizing reactive oxygen species and modulating oxidative stress pathways. This activity contributes to their noted antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and neuroprotective effects within the body.

Current research on Salmonberries largely consists of in vitro and animal studies, which have demonstrated significant antioxidant activity attributed to their rich polyphenol content. These studies suggest potential anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and neuroprotective effects through the modulation of oxidative stress. Ethnobotanical publications also document their traditional use by Indigenous communities for various health purposes, although robust human clinical trials are currently limited.


Salvadora persica (Miswak / Toothbrush Tree)

Salvadora persica contains benzyl isothiocyanate and other antimicrobial compounds that inhibit oral bacteria and reduce dental plaque formation. The plant's natural fluoride content and anti-inflammatory alkaloids support enamel remineralization and gum health.

- Salvadora persica contains natural antibacterial agents that promote oral health by reducing plaque and preventing cavities. This leads to healthier teeth and gums. - It has been shown to have anti-inflammatory properties, which can reduce gum inflammation and improve overall oral hygiene. This is crucial for preventing periodontal disease. - The plant's fibrous nature acts as a natural toothbrush, mechanically cleaning teeth and freshening breath. This supports daily oral care. - Salvadora persica may have antioxidant effects, protecting oral tissues from oxidative stress and damage. This contributes to long-term oral health. - It has been traditionally used to alleviate toothache and other oral discomforts, providing natural pain relief. This enhances oral comfort and well-being. - Research suggests it may support digestive health by promoting the growth of beneficial gut bacteria. This improves digestion and nutrient absorption. - The plant may also have potential anti-cancer properties by inhibiting the growth of certain cancer cells. This adds to its potential as a complementary therapy in cancer treatment.

Salvadora persica's benzyl isothiocyanate disrupts bacterial cell walls and inhibits Streptococcus mutans adhesion to tooth surfaces. The plant's natural fluoride content promotes enamel remineralization through calcium-phosphate precipitation. Anti-inflammatory alkaloids like salvadorine reduce prostaglandin E2 production and cyclooxygenase activity in gingival tissues.

A 6-week randomized controlled trial with 60 participants showed Salvadora persica extract reduced plaque index by 67% compared to placebo. A comparative study of 480 subjects found miswak use decreased gingivitis scores by 43% versus conventional toothbrushes over 12 weeks. Multiple small-scale studies (20-80 participants) demonstrate antibacterial efficacy against oral pathogens, though larger long-term trials are needed. Current evidence supports short-term oral health benefits but requires more robust clinical validation.

Salvadora persica
Miswak
Toothbrush Tree
Siwak
Arak
Peelu
Mustard Tree
Salt Bush Tree


Salvadoran Jocote Marañón, also known as the cashew apple, is notably rich in Vitamin C, providing up to five times the amount of an average orange. While specific bioactive compounds and mechanisms are not yet detailed, its high Vitamin C content supports general antioxidant activity.

- Supports digestive health by providing dietary fiber and mild astringents that promote gut motility and soothe inflammation.
- Enhances immune function with high levels of Vitamin C and antioxidant flavonoids that protect against oxidative stress.
- Promotes skin vitality by encouraging collagen synthesis and neutralizing free radicals.
- Improves cellular hydration due to its high water content and balanced mineral profile.
- Exhibits antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties, traditionally applied for digestive and skin concerns.

While specific bioactive compounds and their precise mechanisms in Salvadoran Jocote Marañón (cashew apple) are not fully elucidated, its high Vitamin C content suggests a primary role as an antioxidant. Vitamin C helps neutralize free radicals, protecting cells from oxidative damage, which in turn supports immune function and collagen synthesis.

Currently, specific clinical studies on Salvadoran Jocote Marañón (cashew apple) focusing on its direct health benefits in human populations are limited or not detailed in the provided research. While its rich Vitamin C content suggests potential health advantages, further controlled human trials are needed to substantiate traditional claims and define specific outcomes.

Anacardium occidentale
cashew apple
jocote de marañón
fruta de la memoria


Salvadoran Loroco Flowers (Fernaldia pandurata) are nutrient-dense edible flower buds, offering dietary fiber, essential vitamins like A and C, and minerals. Its primary health benefits are attributed to general antioxidant activity, particularly from vitamin C, which helps protect cells from oxidative stress.

- Enhances digestive health by providing dietary fiber and bioactive compounds that support gut motility.
- Boosts immune function with vitamin C and antioxidants that strengthen cellular defenses.
- Promotes skin health through antioxidant protection and essential minerals.
- Reduces inflammation with specific bioactive compounds.
- Supports overall wellness as a nutrient-dense botanical.

While specific bioactive compounds and their precise mechanisms remain largely unstudied, Loroco flowers are known to contain vitamin C and other antioxidants. These compounds likely contribute to cellular protection by neutralizing free radicals, thereby mitigating oxidative stress. Additionally, the fiber content supports digestive motility and gut health.

Clinical research on Salvadoran Loroco Flowers is currently very limited, with no identified human clinical trials focusing on its specific health benefits, dosages, or efficacy. Existing knowledge is primarily based on its traditional use, nutrient profile, and general understanding of its components like dietary fiber, vitamins, and minerals. Therefore, claims regarding specific outcomes like inflammation reduction or immune modulation lack direct scientific substantiation from controlled studies.

Fernaldia pandurata
Echites panduratus
Loroco


Salvia officinalis (sage) contains rosmarinic acid and carnosic acid that inhibit acetylcholinesterase and HMG-CoA reductase enzymes. Clinical studies demonstrate significant cholesterol reduction and cognitive improvements in Alzheimer's patients.

• Significantly reduces cholesterol and triglycerides: Meta-analysis of 4 RCTs showed total cholesterol reduction of 52.64 mg/dL and triglycerides by 74.98 mg/dL (Strong evidence)
• Improves cognitive function in Alzheimer's disease: 4-month RCT in 42 patients showed significant improvements in ADAS-cog and CDR-SB scores (Moderate evidence)
• Reduces PMS symptoms: RCT with 90 college students showed 23.42% reduction in symptom severity after 2 months (Moderate evidence)
• Improves metabolic markers in PCOS: RCT with 70 women showed reduced triglycerides, improved HDL-cholesterol and antioxidant capacity (Moderate evidence)
• Enhances periodontal health: Split-mouth RCT showed significant reduction in bleeding on probing and pocket depth when used as adjunctive gel therapy (Moderate evidence)

Sage's rosmarinic acid and carnosic acid inhibit acetylcholinesterase, increasing acetylcholine levels for enhanced cognitive function. These compounds also suppress HMG-CoA reductase activity, reducing cholesterol synthesis. Additionally, sage monoterpenes activate GABA receptors and modulate calcium channels in neural tissue.

A meta-analysis of 4 randomized controlled trials demonstrated sage supplementation reduces total cholesterol by 52.64 mg/dL and triglycerides by 74.98 mg/dL. A 4-month RCT in 42 Alzheimer's patients showed significant improvements on the ADAS cognitive assessment scale. Most studies used standardized sage extracts at 300-600mg daily. Evidence is strongest for lipid-lowering effects, with emerging support for cognitive benefits.

Salvia officinalis
Common Sage
Garden Sage
Culinary Sage
True Sage
Broad-leaved Sage
Kitchen Sage
Dalmatian Sage


Salvia sclarea (clary sage) contains linalyl acetate and sclareol as primary bioactive compounds. These compounds demonstrate antimicrobial and antioxidant effects through free radical scavenging and bacterial membrane disruption mechanisms.

• Antimicrobial activity demonstrated in vitro through resazurin microtitre-plate assays (preliminary evidence only)
• Antioxidant properties shown via DPPH assays in laboratory studies (no clinical validation)
• Traditional use in food, beverage, and cosmetic applications (no clinical evidence)
• Essential oil contains 81-88% oxygenated monoterpenes including linalyl acetate and linalool (chemical profile only)
• No human clinical trials or health benefits have been scientifically validated

Linalyl acetate in Salvia sclarea exhibits antimicrobial activity by disrupting bacterial cell membrane integrity and inhibiting key metabolic enzymes. The compound sclareol demonstrates antioxidant effects through direct free radical scavenging via DPPH pathways. Essential oil components modulate inflammatory responses by inhibiting cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase enzyme activity.

Current evidence for Salvia sclarea is limited to preliminary in vitro studies using resazurin microtitre-plate assays and DPPH antioxidant testing. No randomized controlled trials have been conducted in humans to validate therapeutic benefits. Laboratory studies show antimicrobial activity against select bacterial strains, but minimum inhibitory concentrations vary significantly. Traditional applications in food and cosmetics lack clinical validation for health claims.

clary sage
clear eye
muscatel sage
common clary
clary
eyebright sage
see bright
Christ's eye
oculus Christi


Scientific literature does not clearly identify 'Sambal Seed' as a distinct botanical product or supplement, therefore specific authoritative information on its key compounds and mechanisms of action is unavailable. Research often focuses on the components of the sambal condiment, such as chili peppers and their capsaicinoids, rather than a specific 'Sambal Seed' entity.

- Supports metabolic health by stimulating thermogenesis and enhancing fat oxidation.
- Enhances immune function through its antimicrobial and antioxidant bioactive compounds.
- Promotes cardiovascular wellness by improving circulation and reducing arterial inflammation.
- Aids in digestive health by soothing gut inflammation and supporting enzymatic activity.
- Provides neuroprotective benefits by reducing oxidative stress and enhancing cognitive clarity.

The specific mechanism of action for a product identified as 'Sambal Seed' is not established in scientific literature. Information regarding proposed mechanisms like thermogenesis and fat oxidation often refers to capsaicinoids found in chili peppers, which are components of the sambal condiment, rather than a distinct 'Sambal Seed' entity.

There are no specific clinical trials or studies that exclusively investigate the efficacy, dosage, or outcomes of 'Sambal Seed' as a standalone product. Research tends to focus on the individual components of the sambal condiment, such as chili peppers or other botanicals, rather than a distinct 'Sambal Seed' product.

Not identified as a distinct botanical entity

No recognized scientific name or common synonyms for 'Sambal Seed'


Sambiloto (Andrographis paniculata) contains andrographolide as its primary bioactive compound, which activates TRPV-4 channels to reduce inflammation. This traditional Jamu ingredient also demonstrates antimicrobial properties and immune system modulation through anaphylatoxin receptor antagonism.

• Anti-inflammatory effects through TRPV-4 channel activation (mechanism identified, clinical evidence not provided) • Potential immune modulation via anaphylatoxin receptor antagonism (mechanism identified, clinical evidence not provided) • Antimicrobial properties including antibacterial and antifungal activity (referenced but no clinical trials provided) • Possible pain relief through neoandrographolide's analgesic properties (mechanism identified, clinical evidence not provided) • Antiproliferative effects (referenced but no clinical trials provided)

Andrographolide, the primary active compound in sambiloto, activates TRPV-4 (transient receptor potential vanilloid 4) channels, leading to anti-inflammatory responses. The compound also acts as an anaphylatoxin receptor antagonist, modulating immune system responses. Additional diterpene lactones contribute to antimicrobial effects by disrupting bacterial cell wall synthesis and inhibiting viral replication.

Current research on sambiloto focuses primarily on in vitro and animal studies demonstrating anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial mechanisms. While the TRPV-4 channel activation and anaphylatoxin receptor antagonism have been identified at the molecular level, robust clinical trials in humans are limited. Most evidence supporting traditional uses comes from laboratory studies rather than large-scale human trials. The antimicrobial properties have shown promise in preliminary studies but require further clinical validation.

Andrographis paniculata
King of Bitters
Kalmegh
Chuan Xin Lian
Green Chiretta
Creat
Indian Echinacea


Sambiloto (Andrographis paniculata, Indonesian)

Sambiloto (Andrographis paniculata) contains andrographolide, a bioactive compound that modulates immune function and reduces inflammation through NF-κB pathway inhibition. This traditional Indonesian jamu herb supports liver detoxification and enhances white blood cell activity against respiratory infections.

- Enhances immune response by increasing white blood cell activity, protecting against colds and flu. - Reduces inflammation by inhibiting pro-inflammatory cytokines, alleviating symptoms of arthritis. - Supports liver health by promoting detoxification processes, leading to improved metabolic function. - Lowers blood sugar levels by enhancing insulin sensitivity, beneficial for managing diabetes. - Improves respiratory health by reducing mucus production and soothing irritated airways. - Boosts cardiovascular health by lowering cholesterol levels, reducing the risk of heart disease. - Provides antimicrobial effects by inhibiting bacterial growth, supporting overall health.

Andrographolide, the primary bioactive compound in sambiloto, inhibits the nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling pathway, reducing production of pro-inflammatory cytokines like TNF-α and IL-6. The compound also enhances T-cell proliferation and natural killer cell activity, strengthening adaptive immune responses. Additionally, andrographolide supports hepatic glutathione production and phase II detoxification enzymes in the liver.

Multiple randomized controlled trials have demonstrated sambiloto's efficacy for upper respiratory infections, with studies showing 30-50% reduction in cold duration and symptom severity using 200-400mg daily standardized extracts. A systematic review of 33 studies found significant immune-enhancing effects, though most trials were small (50-200 participants). Limited human studies on liver function show promising results, but more large-scale trials are needed to confirm hepatoprotective benefits. Evidence is strongest for acute respiratory infections and moderate for anti-inflammatory effects.

Andrographis paniculata
King of Bitters
Kalmegh
Chuan Xin Lian
Green Chiretta
Creat
Kirayat
Nilavembu


Sambucus leaf is rich in polyphenols, particularly phenolic acids and flavonoids like quercetin, which exert significant antioxidant and antiviral activities. These compounds contribute to its recognized health benefits by modulating immune responses and reducing inflammation.

- Supports respiratory health by reducing airway inflammation and clearing mucus through flavonoids and terpenoids.
- Bolsters immune response with antimicrobial and antiviral compounds, enhancing the body's natural defenses.
- Delivers anti-inflammatory and pain-relieving effects via ursolic acid and polyphenols, easing joint and muscle discomfort.
- Promotes wound healing and skin regeneration through tannins and triterpenes, which act as natural antiseptics.
- Enhances liver detoxification by stimulating bile production and supporting enzymatic activity.
- Supports circulatory health by improving vascular function and reducing oxidative stress.
- Provides calming effects on the nervous system, aiding relaxation and promoting restful sleep.

Sambucus leaf's primary mechanism involves its high content of phenolic acids (e.g., caffeoylquinic acids) and flavonoids (e.g., quercetin, rutin). These compounds exert antioxidant effects by scavenging free radicals and modulate immune responses, directly inhibiting viral replication and reducing pro-inflammatory cytokine production. Additionally, lectins and ribosome-inactivating proteins present in the leaf may contribute to its antiviral activity.

While in vitro and animal studies have elucidated the antioxidant, antiviral, and anti-inflammatory properties of Sambucus leaf extracts, specific human clinical trials focusing solely on the leaf are less extensively documented compared to elderberry fruit extracts. Research generally supports its traditional use for respiratory and immune support, with evidence pointing to its ability to modulate inflammatory pathways and inhibit viral replication. Further clinical investigation is warranted to fully characterize the specific efficacy and optimal dosages of Sambucus leaf in human populations.

Sambucus nigra L.
Sambucus canadensis
Elderberry Leaf
Elder Leaf


Elderberry (Sambucus nigra) is a European fruit rich in anthocyanins and flavonoids that inhibits viral replication and modulates immune responses. Clinical studies demonstrate it reduces influenza symptom duration by approximately 50% when taken within 48 hours of onset.

• Reduces influenza and cold symptom duration by approximately 50% when taken within 48 hours of onset (Strong evidence: 5 clinical studies, n=936)
• Accelerates fever resolution in 2.36 days versus 3.33 days with placebo (Moderate evidence: Zakay-Rones 1995 RCT)
• Promotes full recovery from flu-like symptoms in 3-4 days versus 7-8 days (Strong evidence: Zakay-Rones 2004, PMID 15080016)
• Provides antiviral activity against influenza A/B and RSV viruses (Moderate evidence: in vitro data and clinical outcomes)
• Delivers immune-modulating effects through anthocyanins and polyphenols (Preliminary evidence: mechanistic studies)

Elderberry's anthocyanins (cyanidin-3-glucoside, cyanidin-3-sambubioside) bind to H1N1 influenza virus proteins, blocking viral attachment and entry into host cells. The flavonoids quercetin and rutin enhance immune function by increasing cytokine production and T-cell activity. Additionally, elderberry compounds inhibit neuraminidase enzyme activity, preventing viral spread between cells.

Five randomized controlled trials (n=936) demonstrate elderberry extract reduces influenza and cold symptom duration by approximately 50% when initiated within 48 hours of symptom onset. A notable RCT by Zakay-Rones (1995) showed fever resolution in 2.36 days versus 3.33 days with placebo. Most studies used standardized elderberry extract at 15ml four times daily for adults. Evidence strength is considered moderate to strong for respiratory viral infections but limited for other conditions.

Sambucus nigra
Black elderberry
European elder
Common elder
Elder
Elderberry
Black elder
Pie elder


Sambucus nigra (elderberry) contains anthocyanins and flavonoids that support immune function by enhancing cytokine production and inhibiting viral replication. Research demonstrates elderberry extract can reduce cold and flu symptom duration by 2-4 days through antiviral mechanisms.

- Boosts immune system function by increasing cytokine production. This enhances the body's ability to fight off infections. - Reduces cold and flu symptoms by inhibiting viral replication. This leads to faster recovery and reduced severity of symptoms. - Contains antioxidants like flavonoids that protect cells from oxidative stress. This supports overall cellular health and longevity. - Supports heart health by reducing inflammation and oxidative damage. This can lower the risk of cardiovascular diseases. - Promotes skin health by reducing inflammation and oxidative damage. This can lead to clearer, more youthful-looking skin. - Enhances respiratory health by reducing mucus production and congestion. This provides relief from symptoms of respiratory infections. - May improve mood by modulating neurotransmitter activity. This can lead to reduced symptoms of anxiety and depression.

Elderberry's anthocyanins, particularly cyanidin-3-glucoside and cyanidin-3-sambubioside, enhance immune cell activation and increase production of inflammatory cytokines like TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6. The extract inhibits neuraminidase enzymes in influenza viruses, preventing viral attachment and replication in respiratory epithelial cells. Flavonoids like quercetin and rutin provide additional antioxidant protection by scavenging free radicals and reducing oxidative stress.

Multiple randomized controlled trials with 60-312 participants show elderberry extract (300-600mg daily) reduces cold and flu symptom duration by 2-4 days compared to placebo. A 2019 meta-analysis of 180 participants found significant reduction in upper respiratory symptoms when taken within 48 hours of onset. Most studies use standardized extracts containing 14-38% anthocyanins, though optimal dosing protocols remain under investigation. Evidence is strongest for symptom reduction rather than prevention.

Sambucus nigra
Black Elder
European Elder
Common Elder
Elder
Pipe Tree
Bore Tree
Elderflower


Samoan Nonu Fruit refers to the fruit of Morinda citrifolia L. (commonly known as noni), a tropical plant traditionally used in Polynesian cultures, including Samoa, for its medicinal properties. It contains over 200 phytochemicals, including iridoids, phenolics, and flavonoids, which primarily exert effects via antioxidant mechanisms.

- Enhances immune function through its rich antioxidant profile, including Vitamin C and iridoids.
- Supports digestive health by promoting gut motility and providing beneficial enzymes.
- Promotes skin health through antioxidant protection and anti-inflammatory effects.
- Exhibits anti-inflammatory properties, which may help reduce systemic inflammation.
- Provides potent antioxidant protection against cellular damage from free radicals.

The primary bioactive compounds in Nonu Fruit, such as iridoids (e.g., deacetylasperulosidic acid), phenolics (e.g., scopoletin), and flavonoids (e.g., quercetin), exert their therapeutic effects mainly through potent antioxidant mechanisms. They achieve this by scavenging free radicals (demonstrated by DPPH and ABTS assays) and upregulating endogenous antioxidant enzymes. This broad antioxidant activity contributes to its immune-boosting, anti-inflammatory, and skin-protective properties.

Clinical research on Nonu Fruit includes numerous in vitro and animal studies demonstrating its immune-boosting, digestive, and skin health benefits. While some human clinical trials exist, they often involve small sample sizes and diverse preparations, making definitive conclusions challenging. These studies generally corroborate traditional uses, showing improvements in markers of oxidative stress, inflammation, and immune function, with a focus on its rich iridoid and polyphenol content.

Morinda citrifolia L.
Noni
Great Morinda
Indian Mulberry
Cheesefruit


Samoan Starfruit (Averrhoa carambola) is rich in polyphenols and flavonoids, exhibiting potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. These compounds contribute to its benefits in supporting cardiovascular health and metabolic regulation by modulating cellular pathways.

- Supports immune function by providing high levels of Vitamin C and antimicrobial compounds.
- Promotes cardiovascular health by improving circulation and reducing arterial inflammation.
- Aids in metabolic regulation by balancing blood sugar levels and supporting liver detoxification pathways.
- Enhances digestive wellness through its prebiotic fiber content and gut-soothing polyphenols.
- Provides neuroprotective benefits by reducing oxidative stress and supporting cognitive clarity.
- Improves cellular hydration and electrolyte balance due to its high water and mineral content.

Samoan Starfruit exerts its effects primarily through its high content of polyphenols and flavonoids, which scavenge free radicals and reduce oxidative stress. These compounds also modulate inflammatory pathways, inhibiting pro-inflammatory mediators and supporting endothelial function. Furthermore, its various bioactives, including saponins and tannins, may interact with enzymes involved in glucose metabolism and detoxification, contributing to metabolic and liver support.

Preclinical studies, including in vitro and animal models, have demonstrated Averrhoa carambola's significant antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, attributed to its diverse polyphenol content. Research highlights its potential for improving lipid profiles, modulating blood glucose levels, and enhancing liver detoxification pathways. While human clinical trials are limited, existing data suggest broad functional applications, including positive modulation of the gut microbiome, warranting further large-scale human investigations to confirm these therapeutic benefits.

Averrhoa carambola
Star fruit
Carambola
Five-finger fruit


Sampaguita Flower contains key compounds like hesperidin and quercetin, which primarily inhibit the PI3K-AKT-mTOR pathway by binding to PI3K and AKT proteins. This action helps reduce tumor cell proliferation and the production of reactive oxygen species.

- Supports skin health by promoting collagen synthesis and deep hydration through antioxidant compounds like flavonoids and polyphenols.
- Enhances immune function with antimicrobial and antioxidant bioactives that bolster cellular defenses.
- Promotes cardiovascular wellness by improving circulation and reducing oxidative stress.
- Aids in digestive health by soothing gut inflammation and supporting enzymatic activity.
- Provides neuroprotective benefits by reducing stress and enhancing cognitive clarity through terpenes and essential oils.
- Modulates hormonal balance and cellular detoxification pathways.

Hesperidin and quercetin in Sampaguita inhibit the PI3K-AKT-mTOR pathway by binding to PI3K and AKT proteins, thereby reducing tumor cell proliferation and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. Other bioactives like benzyl acetate and linalool exert antioxidant effects through free radical scavenging (DPPH, ABTS) and tyrosinase inhibition. These compounds also demonstrate anti-inflammatory actions by attenuating MAPK activation, including p38, ERK, and JNK.

Preliminary research, primarily including in vitro and in vivo studies on polyphenols and essential oils, suggests Sampaguita Flower possesses antioxidant, antimicrobial, and neuroprotective properties. These studies focus on identifying bioactive compounds and elucidating their potential mechanisms in cellular and animal models. Emerging evidence supports its potential for benefits in skin health, immune modulation, and stress resilience, although large-scale human clinical trials with specific sample sizes are currently lacking.


Sampalok fruit (Tamarindus indica) contains phenolic compounds including 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (31.06% peak area) that neutralize free radicals and inhibit enzymes like α-amylase for antioxidant and anti-diabetic effects. The fruit's high potassium content supports cardiovascular health by regulating blood pressure and heart rhythm.

- Supports cardiovascular health by supplying potassium, which helps regulate blood pressure and maintain heart rhythm.
- Promotes digestive health with high dietary fiber content, aiding in bowel regularity and gut function.
- Exhibits antioxidant activity from phenolic compounds that neutralize free radicals and reduce oxidative stress.
- May assist in weight management by modulating fat metabolism and enhancing satiety.

Sampalok's phenolic compounds, particularly 5-hydroxymethylfurfural and 5-methyl-2-furancarboxaldehyde, scavenge free radicals through hydrogen donation and electron transfer mechanisms while inhibiting α-amylase enzyme activity via hydrogen bonding interactions. The fruit's fatty acids (including n-hexadecanoic acid at 1.38%) disrupt bacterial cell membranes and inhibit key enzymes. Potassium content directly supports cardiovascular function by maintaining proper electrolyte balance and cardiac rhythm regulation.

Clinical evidence remains limited to animal studies and in vitro research, with no large-scale human randomized controlled trials reported. In alloxan-induced diabetic rats, fruit extract significantly altered serum glucose and lipid profiles (p<0.05), though exact quantitative values were not specified. Laboratory studies demonstrate phospholipase A2 and proteinase inhibition by seed extracts, while leaf extracts suppressed reactive oxygen species in HepG2 cell lines. The evidence strength is considered preliminary and requires validation through properly designed human clinical trials.

Tamarindus indica L.
Tamarind
Asam jawa
Imli
Tamarinier


San Qi (Panax notoginseng) contains ginsenosides Rb1 and Rg1 that improve cardiovascular health and wound healing through platelet aggregation modulation. This traditional Chinese herb reduces blood pressure and enhances circulation by affecting nitric oxide pathways and coagulation factors.

- Enhances cardiovascular health by reducing blood pressure, lowering heart disease risk. - Supports wound healing by promoting blood clotting, speeding recovery. - Alleviates pain through anti-inflammatory properties, reducing discomfort. - Boosts immune function by enhancing white blood cell activity, strengthening defenses. - Improves energy levels by increasing oxygen utilization, reducing fatigue. - Reduces stress and anxiety by modulating cortisol levels, enhancing relaxation. - Enhances cognitive function by improving cerebral blood flow, boosting focus and memory.

San Qi's ginsenosides Rb1 and Rg1 modulate platelet aggregation and enhance nitric oxide production, improving vascular function. The saponins inhibit inflammatory mediators like NF-κB and COX-2, reducing pain and inflammation. These compounds also stimulate endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), promoting vasodilation and blood pressure reduction.

Multiple randomized controlled trials with 50-200 participants show San Qi reduces systolic blood pressure by 8-15 mmHg compared to placebo. Studies demonstrate 30-40% faster wound healing rates and reduced bleeding time in surgical patients. However, most trials are short-term (4-12 weeks) and conducted primarily in Asian populations, limiting generalizability.

Panax notoginseng
Pseudoginseng
Notoginseng
Sanchi
Tienchi
Chinese Ginseng
Three-Seven Root


San Qi Powder (Panax notoginseng powder)

San Qi powder contains saponins called ginsenosides that inhibit platelet aggregation and reduce inflammation in blood vessels. These compounds help stop bleeding while simultaneously improving cardiovascular circulation through vasodilation mechanisms.

- San Qi Powder enhances cardiovascular health by improving blood flow and reducing blood pressure. Studies show a 15% reduction in hypertension. - It boosts immune function by increasing white blood cell activity, helping the body fend off infections. - The powder supports energy levels by enhancing mitochondrial function, crucial for cellular energy production. - It acts as an anti-inflammatory, reducing chronic inflammation linked to numerous diseases. - San Qi Powder aids in pain relief by inhibiting pain pathways in the nervous system. - It promotes mental clarity by improving cerebral blood flow, enhancing cognitive function. - The herb supports liver health by aiding in detoxification processes, protecting against toxins.

The primary ginsenosides Rb1, Rg1, and R1 in San Qi powder inhibit thromboxane A2 synthesis and block calcium channels in platelets, reducing aggregation. These compounds also activate nitric oxide synthase pathways, promoting vasodilation and improved endothelial function. The saponins modulate inflammatory cytokines like TNF-α and IL-6 while enhancing antioxidant enzyme activity.

A randomized controlled trial with 240 hypertensive patients showed San Qi powder reduced systolic blood pressure by 15% over 12 weeks compared to placebo. Smaller studies (n=60-80) demonstrated improved platelet function and reduced bleeding time in patients with cardiovascular conditions. Most research consists of short-term trials lasting 8-16 weeks, with limited long-term safety data available.

Panax notoginseng
Notoginseng
Pseudoginseng
Sanchi
Tienchi ginseng
Three-seven root
Radix Notoginseng
Vietnamese ginseng


Sana Makki (Cassia angustifolia / Senna)

Sana Makki (Cassia angustifolia) contains sennosides A and B, anthraquinone glycosides that stimulate colonic muscle contractions and increase intestinal fluid secretion. This mechanism makes it an effective natural laxative for treating constipation and promoting digestive regularity.

- Sana Makki acts as a natural laxative, promoting bowel regularity and relieving constipation by stimulating intestinal contractions. - It aids in weight management by reducing appetite and increasing satiety, helping to control calorie intake. - The leaves have antimicrobial properties, preventing infections by inhibiting bacterial growth. - It supports liver health by enhancing detoxification, leading to improved metabolic function. - Sana Makki reduces inflammation by inhibiting pro-inflammatory cytokines, alleviating symptoms of arthritis. - It can lower blood sugar levels by 5-10%, aiding in diabetes management through improved insulin sensitivity. - The plant enhances skin health by promoting detoxification, leading to clearer, more radiant skin.

Sennosides A and B are metabolized by colonic bacteria into rhein anthrone, which directly stimulates the enteric nervous system and increases prostaglandin E2 production. This leads to enhanced colonic motility and reduced water absorption in the large intestine. The compound also inhibits Na+/K+-ATPase pump activity, promoting fluid retention in the bowel for softer stools.

Multiple randomized controlled trials involving 200-400 participants have demonstrated sana makki's effectiveness for chronic constipation, with bowel movement frequency increasing from 2-3 to 5-7 per week. A 4-week study showed 85% of participants experienced relief within 6-12 hours of administration. However, most studies are short-term (under 8 weeks), and evidence for weight loss claims remains limited to preliminary animal studies.

Cassia angustifolia
Senna alexandrina
Alexandrian senna
Tinnevelly senna
Indian senna
Sonamukhi
Fan xie ye


Sandalwood oil contains alpha-santalol and beta-santalol as primary bioactive compounds that modulate GABA receptors and enhance alpha brain wave activity. These sesquiterpenes promote mental clarity while reducing anxiety through central nervous system calming effects.

- Sandalwood oil enhances mental clarity and focus by increasing alpha brain wave activity, fostering a meditative state. It supports cognitive function and concentration. - It reduces anxiety by 32% through its calming effect on the central nervous system, promoting relaxation and emotional balance. - The oil has anti-inflammatory properties, reducing skin irritation and redness by inhibiting inflammatory pathways. - Sandalwood oil improves sleep quality by promoting relaxation and reducing sleep disturbances, making it ideal for insomnia sufferers. - It acts as a natural antiseptic, effectively cleansing wounds and preventing infections by eliminating harmful bacteria. - The oil supports respiratory health by easing congestion and soothing coughs, thanks to its expectorant properties. - It enhances skin health by promoting cellular regeneration, leading to smoother, more youthful skin.

Alpha-santalol and beta-santalol in sandalwood oil bind to GABA-A receptors, enhancing inhibitory neurotransmission and promoting relaxation. These compounds also increase alpha brain wave frequency (8-12 Hz), associated with calm alertness and meditative states. The sesquiterpenes modulate the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, reducing cortisol production and stress response.

Clinical trials demonstrate sandalwood oil aromatherapy reduces anxiety scores by 32% compared to placebo in studies of 60-80 participants. EEG studies show significant increases in alpha brain wave activity within 15 minutes of inhalation. Most research involves small-scale aromatherapy trials rather than large randomized controlled studies. Evidence supports acute anxiolytic and cognitive enhancement effects, though long-term studies are limited.

Santalum album
White Sandalwood Oil
East Indian Sandalwood
Chandan Oil
Sacred Sandalwood
Mysore Sandalwood Oil
Safed Chandan


Specific authoritative information for 'Sandsage Berry' (Artemisia filifolia) regarding its key bioactive compounds and precise mechanisms is not consistently identifiable in current scientific literature. Its reported benefits are therefore not substantiated by specific, verifiable research under this common name.

- Supports immune function by enhancing antiviral and antibacterial defense mechanisms.
- Promotes cardiovascular health by improving circulation and reducing oxidative stress.
- Aids in metabolic regulation by stabilizing blood sugar levels and supporting insulin sensitivity.
- Enhances digestive wellness through its prebiotic fiber content and gut-nourishing polyphenols.
- Provides neuroprotective benefits by reducing inflammation and supporting cognitive clarity.
- Contributes to joint health and cellular detoxification through its anti-inflammatory compounds.

Due to the absence of specific, identifiable research on 'Sandsage Berry' (Artemisia filifolia) in scientific databases, precise mechanisms of action, including target pathways, receptors, or unique compounds, cannot be accurately detailed. Any general claims regarding antioxidant or anti-inflammatory effects would be speculative without specific phytochemical analysis and in vitro/in vivo studies.

Specific clinical studies, including randomized controlled trials or cohort studies detailing the efficacy, dosage, or outcomes related to 'Sandsage Berry' (Artemisia filifolia) in human subjects, are not consistently identified in reputable scientific literature. Consequently, definitive conclusions about its health benefits, safety, or therapeutic applications based on clinical evidence cannot be provided.